The Old Testament is the first and oldest of the two parts of the Bible recognized by Christians. The Old Testament is the Holy Scripture for both Judaism and Christianity. It was presumably written from the 13th to the 1st centuries. before the birth of Christ. The books of the Old Testament are mostly written in Hebrew, but some are written in Aramaic. Our website currently presents a modern literal (literal) translation of the Septuagint (LXX).
The Old Testament is a very important part of the Bible. Without him, we would not be able to understand the meaning of the coming of the Messiah. We wouldn't know where this world came from or why there is so much evil in the world. Without it, we would not know that people are sinners, and we would not understand the need for the Savior who was revealed in Jesus Christ of Nazareth.
The books of the Old Testament Scriptures are divided into the following sections:
Pentateuch (law)
- book
Life - book
Exodus - book
Leviticus - book
Numbers - book
Deuteronomy
Story
- book
Joshua - book
Book of Judges - book
Books Chronicles - book
Ezra - book
Nehemiah - book
Esther
Poetry
- book
Job - book
Psalms - book
Proverbs - book
of the Preacher Ecclesiastes - book
Songs of Songs
Prophecies
- book
Isaiah - book
Jeremiah - book
Lamentations of Jeremiah - book
Ezekiel - book
Daniel - book
Hosea
- book
Joel - book
Amos - book
Avdiy - book
Jonah - book
Micah - book
Nahum
- book
Habakkuk - book
Safonia - book
Haggai - book
Zechariah - book
Mallachi
Languages of the Old Testament books
The books of the Old Testament were written in Hebrew, with the exception of some of them written in the Chaldean language. Some texts were lost, and some books came to us only in the Latin translation (Vulgate) of the late 4th century, made by Jerome directly from the Hebrew text. He also used other, better translations. Due to the fact that during the time of Christ and the New Testament Church the translation of the books of the Old Testament into Greek was widespread, it was also quoted in substantiating certain doctrines. The PRO BIBLE website presents translations of the books of the Old Testament from the Septuagint.
Prophet Isaiah
– Alexey Sergeevich, you also share this point of view, don’t you? Why? At the same time, what can be said about the era in which the prophet Isaiah lived and acted and about himself and his possible followers?
– The Prophet Isaiah or, if we accept the concept of several authors, Proto-Isaiah lived in the second half of the eighth century BC; the years of his prophetic mission - approximately from 740 to 690: we cannot unambiguously date the events of Old Testament history at all - for the reason that the years of the reign of the kings of Judah are dated differently by researchers. But, approximately, the year of the death of King Uzziah and the year of the calling of Isaiah is 740 BC. The prophet's ministry coincided with the reign of four kings of Judah: Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah. 690 is one of the last years of Hezekiah’s reign. There is some historical symbolism here: Uzziah is considered one of the most successful kings of the divided monarchy,1 and with his death comes an era of trials, the prosperity of the kingdom of Judah is replaced by disasters. The religious situation changes periodically: Ahaz is one of the most wicked kings from the Davidic dynasty of Jerusalem, and Hezekiah is one of the most righteous and pious. Isaiah equally carries out his mission, fulfills his duty to God both under a bad and under a good king; both in prosperity and in sorrow.
This is a very difficult period for the Kingdom of Judah: the Assyrian power (Assur) is strengthening, it begins active expansion. For many countries in the East, the question of survival arises. The northern Jewish kingdom - Israel - disappears from the political map of the world at that time (see: 2 Kings 17, 23 - taken from its land to Assyria, where it remains to this day
). The south - Judea with its capital in Jerusalem - falls under the rule of Asshur, but it manages to maintain formal autonomy.
What is known about Isaiah himself? He lived in Jerusalem; there is an assumption that he could be a relative of the Jewish kings, in any case, he was close to them; in chapter 8 of the book he communicates with the high priest Uriah. Isaiah had a wife, referred to in the book as a prophetess, and at least two sons. The names of the sons are symbolic: Shear-Yasuv (“The remnant will be saved”, see: Is. 7: 3) and Mager-shelal-hash-baz - this is a warning about the devastation that Israel will undergo from the Assyrians: for before the child can say: my father, my mother, the
riches of Damascus and the spoils of Samaria will be brought before the king of Assyria
(Isa. 8:4)
In the Jewish tradition, Isaiah is considered the greatest of the prophets, along with Moses: both of them are God-seers who contemplated God directly. This is described in the 6th chapter of the Book of Isaiah, dedicated to his call to prophetic ministry: In the year of the death of King Uzziah, I saw the Lord sitting on a throne, high and exalted, and the train of His robe filled the whole temple
(6, 1). Other prophets received revelation indirectly - through the word, through angels.
There is reason to believe that Isaiah had disciples and followers - in particular, some of his prophecies are repeated in the Book of the Prophet Micah. We can talk about the school of Isaiah; this is the basis for the assumption that his extensive book is actually an anthology, a collection of several prophetic books; that his work was continued by distant, “grandchildren” students.
The idea of the two authors arose at the end of the 18th century; Today, many biblical scholars agree that chapters 40 to 66 were written during the period of the Babylonian captivity, that is, more than a hundred years after the death of Isaiah, who, according to legend, was executed during the era of the evil and cruel king Manasseh. The supposed author of these chapters is usually called Deuteroisaiah - in contrast to Protoisaiah, the author of the first part of the book. There is also the concept of the many authors of the Book of Isaiah, that it is a collection of revelations from his prophetic school. These concepts currently have opponents - biblical scholars who consider the Book of Isaiah to be one, belonging to one author-prophet. However, in general, the concept of Deuteronomy is not rejected by today's biblical studies, and I personally do not reject it either: it seems reasonable to me.
– In general, what is the moral content of Isaiah’s prophecies, what is its main semantic motive?
– This content is obvious and reflected in the initial chapters of the book. In the first chapter, Isaiah continues the tradition of the prophet Amos - criticism of religious formalism, when faith is reduced to the ritual side, when it is believed that the main thing is to make the required sacrifices on time, and the moral side is ignored. The Lord, through the mouth of Isaiah, says that He hates and rejects these offerings, because people have forgotten the main thing - conscience: No longer bear vain gifts: smoking is disgusting to Me;
New moon and Saturdays, holiday gatherings I can’t stand: lawlessness -
and celebration! (Isa. 1:13).
And further - the first chapter contains the moral commandments given by God through Isaiah: Wash yourselves, make yourselves clean;
remove your evil deeds from before my eyes; stop doing evil; learn to do good, seek justice, save the oppressed, defend the orphan, stand up for the widow (Isa. 1: 16-17).
Here we see a warning about the destruction that sin brings to the people: for you will be like an oak whose leaf has fallen, and like a garden in which there is no water.
And the mighty will be rags, and his work will be
a spark;
and they will burn together, and
no one will put it out (
Is. 1:30-31);
and a call to saving repentance before the Lord: Though your sins be as scarlet, they will be
as
snow;
though they be red as crimson, will
be as white as wool
(18).
O house of Jacob! Come, let us walk in the light of the Lord
(Isa. 2:5)
-
this call runs like a red thread throughout the entire book.
But here we also see the endless sorrow of God for His beloved, chosen people: For the heart of this people has become hardened, and their ears are hard to hear, and they have closed their eyes, lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and not will turn so that I can heal them
(6, 10)
– In the book of Isaiah, the word “remnant” is repeated many times: And it will come to pass in that day that the remnant of Israel and those who escaped from the house of Jacob will no longer rely on him who defeated them, but will put their trust in the Lord, the Holy One of Israel, wholeheartedly. The remnant will be converted, the remnant of Jacob
-
to the mighty God.
For even though your people, O Israel, were as many as the sand of the sea, only a remnant of them will be converted (Isa. 10:20-22). With bright, poetic colors the prophet paints the blessed life of the saved righteous remnant - God's vineyard - on earth under the auspices of the Judge and Creator. But who is in this remnant? How did this optimistic prophecy come true—or not come true?
– This term itself – “remnant” – has a military origin. When one state won a war with another, what remained of the defeated people was precisely the remnant. The fate of the remainder was, as a rule, sad: they were forced to work for their enslavers, and then assimilated and dissolved among other peoples. The remnant is a part of the people that survived, but was deprived of a future. But in this case, the remnant is that part of Israel that will survive the punishments that will befall the people who have fallen into countless sins and betrayed God. Such punishment was the invasion of the Assyrians led by King Sennacherib, the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah (chapters 36–39), and in the long term the Babylonian captivity. But this remnant has a future: those who are saved will become the beginning of a new people of God - a people who will always be righteous before God.
As for the fulfillment of this prophecy, it is possible in several ways. There is a term: double fulfillment prophecy. Part of the fulfillment can be seen in the community of Jews who returned from the Babylonian captivity: they were truly righteous and different from the people who were before the captivity. But the concept of the remnant is also applied to the New Testament Church of Christ: not only to the Jews who were baptized by the apostles, but also to people of all nations: by entering the Church, they formed the new people of God. That is, you and I are also part of the remnant that Isaiah prophesied about.
– All the great prophets, moved by the Holy Spirit, sternly warned about the terrible punishments that would fall on the people for their wickedness. But in the words of Isaiah something else is very clearly expressed - how God loves man, how the Lord wants his salvation: Will a woman forget her suckling child, so as not to have compassion on the son of her womb? but even if she forgot, then I will not forget you
(Isa. 49:15). I would call Isaiah the prophet of God's love. Do you agree?
- Quite. Although the first and second parts of the book differ in this sense: the first is, rather, a sermon of judgment. But, as far as we have an idea of God’s relationship to man in the Old Testament, the idea of mercy and love in Him always prevails over the idea of judgment and punishment. Where we talk about God's punishment, there is always room for words of consolation, words that give a person hope. Of course, this is inherent in the Book of Isaiah; but only in Isaiah do we see a prophecy about the earthly kingdom of love, about life that has not yet come on earth: Then the wolf will live with the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the kid; and the calf, and the young lion, and the ox will be together, and a little child will lead them. And the cow will feed with the she-bear, and their cubs will lie down together, and the lion will eat straw like the ox. And the child will play over the asp's hole, and the child will stretch out his hand into the snake's nest. They will not do evil or harm in all My holy mountain, for the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea.
(11, 6–10).
The second part of the book of Isaiah is considered comforting. Chapter 50 begins with the words: Thus says the Lord: Where is your mother’s divorce letter with which I sent her away? or to which of My lenders have I sold you? Behold, you were sold for your sins, and your mother was released for your transgressions.
There is such an interpretation that in this chapter Isaiah - or Deuteroisai - is polemicizing with the prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Hosea. They believed that the Lord was, as it were, divorcing Judea, leaving her for her sins. Isaiah rejects this idea: the Lord did not give a letter of divorce. And since he is not there, it means the marriage is not dissolved and the punishment for infidelity is temporary.
– Isaiah has a very clear call to fear no one but God...
– Yes, and that is why he constantly criticizes the kings of Judah for the fact that in difficult, dangerous situations for the state, in military conflicts, they seek an alliance with the pagans, without relying on the One God - the God of Israel: Woe to the disobedient sons, says the Lord, who do conferences, but without Me, and they make alliances, but not according to My spirit, so as to add sin to sin: without questioning My mouth, they go to Egypt to strengthen themselves with the power of Pharaoh and hide under the shadow of Egypt.
(30, 1–2).
The prophet convinces the rulers that God will give help to those who trust in Him. The famous prophecy is directly connected with this: behold, a virgin will receive and give birth to a Son, and they will call His name Immanuel
(7, 14).
The seventh chapter of the book describes the events of the Syro-Ephraim war, this is approximately 735 BC. The threat of Assyrian conquest becomes obvious. Small states - Syria and Palestine - are trying to create a coalition and together resist the aggressor. Egypt encourages them with promises, while in the meantime it tries to solve its problems by creating a shield for itself from these states. The neighboring states want Judea to join their union, but it refuses. Syria and Israel decide to depose the Jewish king Ahaz and instead install their own representative, who would go to war with Assyria along with them. To this end, Syria and Palestine besiege Jerusalem. If they had succeeded in carrying out their plan, they, as usual in such cases, would have exterminated all the relatives of the ruling dynasty. The threat loomed over the dynasty of David - over the Messianic family.
It is at this critical moment that the prophet Isaiah appears before Ahaz along with his son Shear-Yasuv. The prophet convinces the king: watch and be calm; Do not be afraid and do not let your heart be discouraged by the two ends of these smoking brands
(4) (both peoples threatening Jerusalem are doomed, they are burning brands) (...)
The Lord God says this: this will not happen and will not come true
(7).
Isaiah suggests that the king ask God for a sign—a miraculous sign. But Ahaz, one of the most wicked kings in the history of Jerusalem, refuses: I will not ask and I will not tempt the Lord
(7, 12). And then Isaiah pronounces a prophecy about a sign - the birth of the Son from the Virgin.
What does a sign mean? A sign, according to the patristic interpretation, is a miraculous, supernatural event. And the word for “Virgin” -alma- is not a common word in Hebrew, denoting a girl who has not yet been married (in a patriarchal society - by definition a virgin), no, this is a rare word, it is used only seven times in the Old Testament (together with the present case). And in this case, it is used with an article that can be called definite (by analogy with the English the) - this means not a virgin in general, but a completely definite, one-of-a-kind Virgo. For example, the word “sun” in this language is always written with this article, because the sun is one. In the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, made in the 2nd century BC. (Septuagint), the word is translated by the word “parthenos” - maiden, virgin; and it left no doubt that the birth of the Messiah would be an unusual, miraculous event.
One of the difficulties in interpreting this passage is that this event occurred seven centuries after the meeting of the prophet and the king; how could it become a sign for Ahaz and his contemporaries? But what was spoken by the Lord through the prophet is no longer addressed personally to Ahaz, but to the dynasty of David and to the entire Jewish people, to all its generations: the fullness of time will be fulfilled, and people will witness the Sign.
And already in the New Testament, in the Gospel of Matthew (1, 22–23), the Angel who appeared to Joseph in a dream reminds him of this prophecy, applying it to the birth of the future Baby and thereby removing the possible accusation from Mary
– We have moved on to the most important aspect of the Book of Isaiah, to what is why he is called the Old Testament evangelist - to his prophecies about Christ:
Chapter 9:
The people walking in darkness will see a great light; on those who live in the land of the shadow of death the light will shine (...) For to us a child is born, to
us a son is given;
dominion is upon His shoulder... (2-6). What and what people are these words about?
– We are talking about the Trans-Jordanian (in relation to Jerusalem) country – Galilee; it was conquered by the Assyrians in the first place, therefore the prophet turns to the Galileans, consoling them: they will not disappear, in the future their land will be revived, and, moreover, it will become the earthly fatherland of the Messiah - the Savior. And the liberation spoken of in the ninth chapter must be understood as liberation from the power of the devil. And we remember that it was from his native Galilee that the Savior began His preaching (see: Luke 4: 14–15)
– And a branch shall come forth from the root of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his root.
(11, 1). Why is the Messiah designated this way here?
- Jesse is the father of David. The prophecy of the Branch from the Root is believed to have been spoken or written down by Isaiah late in his life, when the political fall of the Davidic dynasty became apparent. The branch is a young shoot from the root of a withered tree hidden in the ground. When from the royal dynasty of David there remains only a modest root in the ground, no different from others (that is, the descendants of David will be simple people among the people), then he will give a living shoot - the Son of Man. And it will come to pass in that day that the Gentiles will turn to the root of Jesse, which will become like a banner for the nations,
–
and his rest shall be the glory
(11, 10).
– Behold, My Servant, Whom I hold by the hand, My chosen one, in whom My soul delights. I will put My spirit on Him, and He will proclaim judgment to the nations; He will not cry out, nor lift up His voice, nor let it be heard in the streets; He will not break a bruised reed, and he will not quench smoking flax; will judge according to truth
(42, 1–2). This is already the second part of the book, and, perhaps, a different author is that same mysterious Deuteroisaiah, the spiritual follower of Isaiah the first. How does prophecy about Christ further develop? Who is He to Isaiah (Deuteronomy)? How does a prophet—or prophets—see the Son of God?
– The prophecy about the Messiah is contained in the second part of the book; Isaiah was named the Old Testament evangelist precisely for these prophecies. The Holy Fathers, who called him that, believed that the entire book belonged to one person - Isaiah. But modern researchers, including Archpriest Alexander Men, believe that this name should be attributed specifically to Deuteronomy. What does the word "youth" mean? This is either a servant, or an intimate, close person: those close to the king were called his youths. Isaiah (or Deuteroisai) does not, of course, have the idea of the Trinity; he cannot imagine that the Child of Yahweh, the Branch from the root, is God incarnate, the begotten, uncreated Son of God. But this is a person close to God, for Isaiah, of course. Hence this image: “I hold Your hand.” Hand means direct connection. The words “to whom My soul delights,” “My chosen one” emphasize the special closeness of the Youth to God. The words about the reed, already broken, and about the flax (linen wick), no longer burning, but only barely smoking, indicate that in His actions there will not be even minimal violence or coercion. And there is also the meaning that the Messiah will be attentive and sensitive to the spiritual weakness of people. It is further said that the Child will bring true justice (judgment) and that the islands will trust in His law
(4) – meaning the Greek islands, the ancient, pagan world.
The Lord will set His Servant as a covenant for the people, as a light for the Gentiles, to open the eyes of the blind, to bring prisoners out of prison and those sitting in darkness out of prison
(
6
, 7).
In the 42nd chapter, the theme of the redemptive suffering of the Youth is not yet expressed, but in subsequent chapters it intensifies and in the 53rd chapter it reaches its culmination: this chapter is the pinnacle of the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. Isaiah describes everything as if he watched the trial of the Savior, heard the cries of “Crucify!”, and stood at the Cross. He talks about the contempt that the Man of Sorrows
from people (3), and about His taking upon Himself the sins of people (4-6), about the resignation of His undeserved suffering (7).
It also speaks of Joseph of Arimathea, who will bury the Crucified One in his own tomb: He was assigned a tomb with evildoers, but He was buried with a rich man, because He committed no sin, and there was no lie in His mouth
(9).
It also says that after offering the sacrifice of propitiation, He will see long-lasting descendants
(10) - by descendants one should understand the Church of Christ.
– And what do the words mean ? There is no form or greatness in Him.
(53, 2)?
– There are two meanings here: first, the Messiah will be a simple man, and not some brilliant king or high priest. The second is the sight of Christ during the torture, crucifixion and, finally, the sight of the dead Christ. A suffering, beaten, exhausted person cannot be somehow beautiful or majestic. In this regard, Christ is the same as all people; He is characterized by natural bodily weakness and vulnerability.
– The book of Isaiah is a prophecy not only about Christ, but also about His Church? In chapter 56 we read that neither the eunuch nor the foreigner should feel like strangers to the Lord: My house will be called a house of prayer for all nations
(7)
.
– Indeed, this is one of the main ideas of Second Isaiah: for God there are no outcasts. The appearance of the Messiah is the salvation of all nations, all people, every person - that is why chapter 42 talks about the Greek islands, which will trust in His law
(4).
But in the first part of the book, in the text belonging to Isaiah himself, we read about the mountain of the house of the Lord, which will be placed at the top of the mountains and rise above the hills, and all nations will flow to it
(2:2).
God will teach those who come His ways,
so that they
may walk in His paths
(2, 3). In biblical studies this is called the concept of universalism: God is not only the God of Israel. God desires the salvation of all people. Everyone must enter His Kingdom.
– It is also necessary to pay attention to chapter 26 – the idea of the rising of the dead: Your dead will live, your dead bodies will rise! Arise and rejoice, cast down in the dust: for Thy dew is
-
the dew of plants, and the earth will spew out the dead
(19). We hear these words in church during Holy Week, right?
– Yes, this is the 5th biblical hymn, which sounds at the matins of Great Lent, and this expression is quoted in the irmos of the 5th hymn of the canon of Great Saturday. This chapter contains both the theme of the revival of all the dead among the people of God, and the theme of the punishment of sinners, the perpetrators of suffering and death: the Lord comes out of His dwelling to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity, and the earth will reveal the blood it has absorbed and will no longer hide its slain
(21).
Indeed, this is one of the most significant places, because only in two places in the Old Testament is the idea of a general resurrection heard so clearly - here and in the Book of the Prophet Daniel: And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth will awaken, some to eternal life, others to eternal reproach and shame
(12:2).
– And he came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and, as was his custom, he entered the synagogue on the Sabbath day and stood up to read. He was given the book of the prophet Isaiah; and He opened the book and found the place where it was written: The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me; For He has anointed Me to preach good news to the poor, and He has sent Me to heal the brokenhearted, to preach release to the captives, recovery of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to preach the acceptable year of the Lord. And, closing the book and giving it to the servant, he sat down; and the eyes of all in the synagogue were fixed on Him. And He began to say to them: Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.
This is the Gospel of Luke (4, 16–21). And now we seem to hear this silence in the Nazarene synagogue, and the voice of the Teacher, heard after a pause in this silence. And He just read the 61st chapter of the Book of Isaiah. The fact that it is Isaiah that the Savior reads in the Nazarene synagogue, that there are so many references to Isaiah in the New Testament, that the metaphor of the vineyard from there, repeatedly used by Christ, means that the spiritual authority of Isaiah was very high?
– The three books of the Old Testament – Psalms, Isaiah and Deuteronomy – are the most frequently quoted in the New Testament, and they also make up the majority of the volume of the Qumran manuscripts. The book of Isaiah was by far the most popular of the prophetic books. It was he who first appeared with the idea of the people of Israel as the vineyard of God, which the Lord would give over to be trampled by wild animals: My Beloved had a vineyard on the top of a fattened mountain, and He surrounded it with a fence, and cleared it of stones, and planted choice vines in it, and he built a tower in the midst of it, and dug a winepress in it, and expected him to bring good grapes, but he brought wild berries (...) I will take away his fence, and he will be desolate; I will destroy its walls, and it will be trampled down, and I will leave it desolate: they will neither prune it nor dig it, but it will be overgrown with thorns and thistles, and I will command the clouds not to rain rain on it. The vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah are His beloved plantings.
(Isa. 5:1-7).
The Savior uses the metaphor of the vineyard more than once in his parables, and in chapter 21 of the Gospel of Matthew He pronounces two such parables in a row. The second one immediately refers us to Isaiah: there was a certain owner of a house who planted a vineyard, surrounded it with a fence, dug a winepress in it, built a tower and, having given it to winegrowers, went away...
(33). Next, the Owner of the vineyard - God - sends to the vinedressers (those to whom God's people are entrusted - their leaders, teachers, priests) first his servants, whom they kill, then, finally, His Son, but they kill Him too. Servants refer to the prophets of the Lord. Isaiah is one of them: let us remember that, according to legend, he was executed in a cruel, painful manner during the reign of the wicked king Manasseh. Contemporaries, listening to Christ, understood perfectly well what He meant.
Interviewed by Marina Biryukova
Authors
Authors who wrote the books of the Old Testament:
- person MOSES
- person JESUS NAVIN
- person SAMUEL
- person JEREMIAH
- person EZDRA
- person NEHEMIAH
- person DAVID
- person SOLOMON
- person EZEKIEL
- person DANIEL
- person OSIA
- person JOEL
- person AMOS
- person AVDIYA
- person IONA
- person MICAH
- person ISAIAH
- person NAUM
- person HABACKUM
- person SOPHONIA
- person HAGGEI
- person ZECHARIAH
- person MALACHIA
PROPHETIC BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
PROPHETIC BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
The concept of prophets.
In the Hebrew text there are several terms used to designate prophets. The most common of them is “navi” (plural: “naviim”), which is actually translated as “prophet”. One explanation is that the term comes from the Akkadian navu (call) and means “called.” Others derive it from the Hebrew root “nb,” which means “to speak, to communicate.” Consequently, “navi” is a speaker, messenger, orator. More precisely, the meaning of the term “Navi” can be determined based on the texts of Ex. 7 , 1-2 and 4 , 15-16, which says that Aaron will be a prophet of Moses. Consequently, “navi” is not only a preacher, but also a mediator who speaks on behalf of another. The Prophet of the Lord, therefore, is a mediator between God and people, a messenger of the will of God.
In the Greek translation, “navi” is rendered by the term προφητης. This term denoted the priests at the oracle, who translated the oracle’s speech and interpreted it for the people. One of the most famous oracles in Ancient Greece was the Pythia, who, under the influence of intoxicating vapors, spoke on behalf of the gods something in an incomprehensible language, and the priest under the Pythia (προφητης) translated her words.
The Russian term “prophet” emphasizes the role of “navi” as a predictor. In this regard, prophets are sometimes considered only as predictors of the future, which is incorrect. Prophecies about future events occupy a relatively small place in prophetic books, although they are very important. The prophets served among their contemporaries and primarily addressed them in their speeches, paying only secondary attention to their descendants and descriptions of future events.
In addition to “navi”, in the Jewish text there are other names of prophets: “roe” - seer (1 Sam. 9 , 9), “hoze” - seer (Am. 7 , 12), “tzophe” - guardian (Ezek. 3 , 17), “man of God” (lit. “man of God” - “ish Elohim”). The terms “roe” and “joze” indicate the special gift of foresight of the prophets, and “tsophe” - the duty of the prophets to be guardians of the religious and moral life of the chosen people.
Based on the given names of the prophets, they can be characterized as follows: prophets are messengers of God who proclaimed the will of God regarding the present, past and future; as genuine representatives of the true religion, they preserved and preached monotheism, high morality and prepared believers for the coming of the Messiah.
The status of the prophet in society.
The seers belonged to a variety of segments of the population: among them were peasants, like Amos and Micah; priests like Ezekiel; temple diviners like Nahum; the king's close associates, like Isaiah. But all of them, often leaving their usual activities, became heralds of heavenly will. They clearly felt that what was being proclaimed did not come from themselves, but from the Lord.
On the one hand, the position of the prophet in society is quite high. Due to the closeness of the prophets to God, they had a certain authority in Israeli society, and before the establishment of the monarchy, the prophets were the leaders and leaders of the people (Moses, Samuel). Under pious kings, prophets often influenced the religious policy of the state.
But on the other hand, after the establishment and, especially, after the division of the monarchy, antagonism arises between the wicked kings and the prophets. In particular, a typical example is the tragic fate of Jeremiah, who suffered insults, humiliation and persecution. Christ says that the stoning of prophets is a common occurrence (Matt. 23, 34-37).
Books of prophet-writers. Quantity and chronological
The order of the prophetic books.
The prophetic writings are the second most important, after the Law, fundamental basis of the Old Testament. In total, the corpus of prophetic writings includes 20 books, of which 17 are canonical and 3 are non-canonical. The canonical books of the prophets in Russian biblical studies are divided into two parts: great and minor prophets. These names are determined only by the volume of the books, but in no case by the importance of their authors. The great prophets include the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah (Lamentations of Jeremiah are often added to this book), Ezekiel and Daniel. The minor prophets include the books of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. It is in this order, according to the division into great and minor prophets, that the prophetic writings are located in the Russian Bible. In the Hebrew Bible, most of the prophetic books are found in the Naviim section after the Early Prophets and are called the Later Prophets. This collection consists of 4 books: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the 12 minor prophets (one book). Two more books are found in the Ketuvim or Scriptures section: the book of Daniel and the Lamentations of Jeremiah. In the LXX translation, the prophetic books are placed at the end, after the teaching ones, with the books of the 12 minor prophets coming first, then the books of the great prophets. Among the non-canonical books, the prophetic books include the books of Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah and 3 Esdras.
The chronological sequence of the ministry of the prophet-writers differs significantly from the order of their books in the Bible. We can distinguish 3 periods of prophetism in Israel:
1) Pre-exilic period: a) VIII century: Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Jonah;
b) VII – early VI centuries: Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk.
2) The period of captivity (586 - 538): Ezekiel, Obadiah, Deuteronomy, Daniel.
3) Persian period (538 - IV century): Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Joel.
BOOK OF THE PROPHET AMOS.
Am. I, 1 – information about the author and the time the book was written is given here. Such basic information is found in almost all prophetic books.
Amos – “burden bearer” (possible etymology of the name).
This prophet was a shepherd. In 7:14 it is said that he collected sycamores (figs). All this indicates the poverty of the prophet. Indirect evidence in favor of the prophet’s humble origins is the failure to mention the name of his father.
Am. 7, 14: “I am not a prophet and not the son of a prophet” - in these words Amos does not deny his own prophetic gift and calling, but says that he does not belong to the category of professional prophets (who received money for their message and were grouped near the royal courts and sanctuaries). Also, he does not come from any prophetic school (similar “schools” were created by the prophet Samuel and the disciples of the prophets were called “sons of the prophets”). It goes on to speak of the immediate and sudden calling of Amos by God: “The Lord took me from the sheep, and the Lord said to me, “Go and prophesy to My people Israel.” (VII, 15).
Tekoa is a village in Judea about 8 km south of Bethlehem. Since this area was located on the very border of arable land, its inhabitants, who consisted mainly of cattle breeders, had to work hard to get everything they needed for life. Thus Amos of Judah is called to the Northern Kingdom and prophesies at Bethel.
Time to serve . Two kings are mentioned: the Judah king Uzziah (790 - 739), since Amos was a Jew by origin, and the Israeli king Jeroboam II (793 - 753), since Amos served in Israel. Earthquake
, which the prophet speaks of, makes it possible to more definitely date the time of Amos' preaching and, accordingly, the time of writing the book. Archaeologists excavating Hazor found that a strong earthquake took place in Palestine in 760 BC. Therefore, the book of Amos was written around 762.
Historical situation.
The Northern Kingdom (Israel) in the first half of the 8th century experienced its last heyday (2 Kings 14 , 23-28). This political rise of Israel took place against the background of the weakening of Egypt and Assyria, which were experiencing internal difficulties. Assyria waged long wars with Urartu and, in addition, suffered from civil strife. Jeroboam II (793–753), the most prominent representative of the Jehu dynasty, returned all the lost areas to Israel and even subjugated Damascus. Together, the territories of Israel and Judah exceeded the territory occupied by Solomon's kingdom. As a result of successful wars, Israel gained control of important trade routes, which also contributed to the enrichment of the king and his courtiers. Israel's capital Samaria was rebuilt and richly decorated. Jeroboam's two residences (summer and winter) were famous for their luxurious decoration. To this day, archaeologists have found in the ruins of Samaria numerous ivory jewelry that Egyptian craftsmen made for the king. However, material wealth not only was not accompanied by spiritual uplift and people’s turning to the Lord, but, on the contrary, revealed many moral illnesses in Israeli society. The rich Israelites were seized by a passion for luxury and sensual pleasures; to satisfy their insatiable desires they resorted to bribery, various kinds of extortion, oppression and oppression of the weak and poor, deception in trade, etc. (2, 6-8 , 5 , 11- 12, 8 , 4-6). At the same time, the attitude towards religion was formal: people thought that the main thing was the fulfillment of the ritual law, and therefore they paid primary attention to the celebration of Saturday and other holidays, made abundant sacrifices, but did not fulfill the moral law, and trampled on justice and truth. Despite such gradual spiritual degradation, unfounded optimism prevailed in the mood of Israeli society: political successes were perceived as the beginning of the near future triumph of Israel over the pagan nations, which will be realized in the “day of Yahweh,” when all pagans will be punished by God and subjugated to Israel.
Book plan.
The book consists of 9 chapters and is divided into three parts:
1. I – II – prophecy about the judgment of the nations.
2. III – VI – judgment of Israel.
3. VII – IX – five visions of the coming judgment and the promise of the preservation of the “remnant”.
BOOK OF THE PROPHET HOSEA.
This book is the first in a series of minor prophets, the largest in volume along with the book of Zechariah (14 chapters). Basic information about the personality of the prophet is found in I, 1.
Name Hosea
Þ(vEHôh – hôšē'a) is translated as “The Lord saved him.”
The expression "Word of the Lord"
characterizes Hosea as a prophet, since one of the types of perception by prophets of the revelation of God is indicated.
Son of Beeriin
- this is either the name of the father or the ancestor. Apparently the family was famous.
From the text of the book it follows that Hosea had a wife and three children, but was unhappy in his family life, since his wife was unfaithful to him.
Place of service - Israel (Northern Kingdom). This conclusion is supported by the following internal evidence from the book:
1) Hosea is well acquainted with the internal life of the Northern Kingdom;
2) the most important cities of the Northern Kingdom are repeatedly mentioned: Samaria, Gilead, Shechem, Gilgal, Bethel;
3) experts point to the northern dialect of the language of the book.
Time of service – 760-725. BC. Determined on the basis of both verse 1 and the entire contents of the book. The inscription indicates 4 kings of Judah who ruled the Southern Kingdom throughout the 8th century (Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah), and at the same time the name of only one Israeli king is given - Jeroboam II, who was a contemporary of only the 1st from the list kings of Judah (Uzziah). Why? Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this discrepancy:
1) the text of verse 1 is damaged;
2) Hosea recognized only the dynasty of David and did not consider the Israeli kings to be legitimate rulers (III, 5; VIII, 4), especially since after Jeroboam a crisis of power sets in, leapfrog on the throne;
3) The Prophet did not consider the successors of Jeroboam II worthy of mention, since their role in the history of Israel was insignificant.
Since at the beginning of the book Hosea mentions the imminent fall of the dynasty of Jehu (I, 4), the calling of Hosea took place at the end of the reign of Jeroboam II. At the same time, nowhere in the book of Hosea is there any mention of the destruction of Samaria (it is expected) and XII, 1 speaks of attempts to conclude an alliance with Egypt. Therefore, Hosea's prophecies were made before 722 BC.
Historical situation.
The 1st half of the 8th century is the period of the highest rise of Israel politically and economically. However, after the death of the great Jeroboam II, a crisis of royal power began. His son Zechariah rules for six months and is then killed by Sellum. The latter was killed a month later by Menaim, who reigned for 10 years. However, his power was not generally recognized: an autonomous state was formed across the Jordan, led by Pekah. Also at this time, Syria “broke away”. Finally, to strengthen his power, Menaim turned to the Assyrians for support. Meanwhile, in 745, as a result of another coup, Tiglath-palassar III reigned in Assyria, established strict order in the country and began an active policy of conquest, conquering Mesopotamia. Soon, on the initiative of Menaim, Israel becomes a tributary of Assyria. Around 740, the anti-Assyrian party enthroned Pekah, who, together with the Syrian king Rezin, formed an anti-Assyrian bloc. Ahaz, king of Judah, refuses to join this coalition. Therefore, Israel begins a war against Judah. Ahaz turns to Tiglath-palassar III for help, Assyrian troops invade Palestine and Syria. As a result of military operations, the north of Israel and Transjordan were captured, and another coup took place in Samaria. The new king Hosea hastened to recognize the power of Assyria. However, after the death of Tiglath-pileser III in 727, Hosea began negotiations with Egypt. This became known to Shalmaneser V, who besieged Samaria. The siege lasted 3 years and in 722 Samaria fell, the existence of the Israeli kingdom ceased, and most of the inhabitants were resettled to the eastern outskirts of the Assyrian kingdom.
God to Israel (1 – 3).
The main ideas (Israel's unfaithfulness, punishment and mercy) are expressed through symbolic actions performed by Hosea. The prophet, through his personal experience, touches on the mystery of God’s unrequited love for Israel, which is represented in the image of an unfaithful wife, constantly cheating on her husband.
1, 2. There is no unanimity among researchers regarding marriage itself. There are three main views on the marriage of Hosea described here:
1) the entire story of the prophet about his marriage with Gomer is a parable, an allegory (Protestant and Catholic exegetes of the 19th century);
2) the marriage of Hosea took place in a vision, the prophet spiritually experienced the events described (Blessed Jerome, Origenists, Jewish interpreters);
3) the prophet describes real events and his actions, which were symbolic in nature (St. Cyril, Blessed Theodoret, most exegetes of modern times).
The last interpretation seems to be the most acceptable, in favor of which the following arguments are given:
a) The Lord required his prophets to perform such symbolic actions, which might seem strange to people (Isa. 20 , 1-4; Ezek. 4 , 1 – 5 , 4);
b) the name of Hosea's wife ( Gomer
) – ordinary, not symbolic. If a prophet were telling a parable, he would certainly use a symbolic name;
c) The personal life of the prophet could be known to the listeners and therefore, if his fate was different (or he was not married, or was happily married), then such a story could cause bewilderment among the people.
The prophet's real suffering and worries about his wife's infidelity became an inner experience of the soul, thanks to which Hosea's mystical vision was revealed and the prophet came to a deeper understanding of God's love for Israel and to a more effective way of revealing it to the people.
The wife is a harlot and the children are harlots. There are several interpretations of these expressions:
1) Gomer was a cult harlot and took part in the Canaanite pagan fertility cult. In this case, the children of fornication
– premarital children of Gomer other than those whose names are given below.
2) Gomer is called a harlot according to foreknowledge as a future unfaithful wife. In this case, Yahweh’s words mean approximately the following: “go and take yourself a wife who will cheat on you.” In this case, the children of fornication
- these are the same children whose names are given below. They were called so because they were either the children of another father, or (which is more likely) because they were the children of a harlot.
In any case, one can understand the tragedy of Hosea, who initially knew that his wife would cheat on him.
1, 3-4. It says here that the prophet fulfilled the will of God and 3 children were born from his marriage to Gomer. The Lord Himself gives them names, and each name reminds of the broken relationship between God and Israel and indicates the punishments that await Israel.
The first son is named Jezreel. Here the focus is not on the meaning of this name (it is translated as “God sows”), but on its association with the events that occurred in the place of the same name. At Jezreel in 841, Jehu killed kings Jehoram and Ahaziah and killed many other members of the house of Ahab. Although Jehu was fulfilling the command of God given through the prophet Elisha, he nevertheless exceeded his authority and dealt with cruelty even with those who should not have been killed (for example, Ahaziah and his relatives). Moreover, having seized power through bloodshed, Jehu himself did not try to fulfill the commandments of God.
Hosea announces that the dynasty of Jehu, founded on blood, will itself soon fall and be destroyed. This prophecy was fulfilled when Sellum killed Zechariah (and possibly all his relatives, although this is not said).
1, 5. It speaks of the battle in the Jezreel Valley, where Israel will suffer a crushing defeat. Although history books do not talk about such a battle, it is assumed that it was in this valley that the decisive battle took place in the 30s. 8th century between the armies of Phakai and Tiglath-pileser III.
1, 6. Loruhama – “unloved, unmercied.” This name comes from the verb “raham”, which expresses the feelings of tenderness and love that a father and mother feel for a child. The Lord has often shown His mercy to Israel throughout history, but henceforth He will not treat Israel in this way, His attitude towards the chosen people will be reversed.
1, 7. Punishing Israel, the Lord promises to have mercy on Judah, and it is said that the deliverance will be miraculous. These words were fulfilled during the siege of Jerusalem by the troops of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (2 Kings XIX).
1, 8-9. Loammi - “not my people.” There is a contrast to the formula of the ancient Testament: “And I will walk among you and will be your God, and you will be My people” (Lev. 26:12 ). From now on, the covenant between God and Israel is dissolved, so that Israel is deprived of the presence of God, He will no longer be Yahweh for Israel ( Yahweh
– “present”).
1, 10 – 2, 1 . The author's tone suddenly changes. These verses contain a prophecy of the restoration of Israel in the distant future. The reference to the future number of the Israeli people (“like the sand of the sea”) is reminiscent of the promise given to Abraham, which speaks of the renewal of the Covenant. The people who were defeated in Jezreel and called “She who has not obtained mercy,” “Not My people,” will again hear from the mouth of the Lord “My people,” “She who has received mercy.” It speaks of the reunification of Israel and Judah, who will “set themselves one head.” This verse can be correlated with 3 :5, which speaks of the appeal of the children of Israel to David, under whose name the Messiah is depicted. Thus, these words of Hosea were partially fulfilled after the return from captivity, when the descendants of the northern tribes became part of the Jewish community. But here you can also see a prophecy about the Messiah, Who became the Head of all members of the people of God, and a prophecy about the Christian Church, as the Apostle Paul writes about this (Rom. 9 :25-26, also 1 Pet. 2:10).
Sins of Israel.
Already at the very beginning of this section, the prophet indicates what exactly the sins of Israel are. First, the Israelites do not have the necessary virtues. “...the judgment of the Lord is with the inhabitants of this land, because there is neither truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God on earth” ( 4 , 1). Consequently, the guilt of the people of God lies in their deviation from the three foundations of the biblical faith: truth, mercy
and
the knowledge of God
. They contain a call for man to imitate God, who is faithful and just, merciful and holy. Truth is not only moral and social justice, but also loyalty to one’s calling and the Lord. Mercy is not only “mercy”, but also compassion and pity. Knowledge of God is not abstract theology, but living, real communication with God through faith and love.
Secondly, the people are guilty of violating all the commandments in relation to their neighbors; it speaks of the increase in false oaths, deception, murder, theft and adultery (6 – 9 commandments of the Decalogue).
On all the hills where the pagans used to pray, Israel makes sacrifices to idols ( 4 , 13). The prophet Hosea attacks the cult at Dan and Bethel, which he calls Beth Aven (“house of wickedness”). “...they made for themselves cast images from their silver, according to their concept - the complete work of artists - and they say to the people making sacrifices: “Kiss the calves!”” ( 13 , 2). Here we should take into account the fact that initially the calves played the role of cherubim (ark), symbolizing the footstool, the throne of Yahweh. But over time, their cult turned into purely pagan worship of bulls, especially since Baal was often depicted in the form of a bull. So in the book of Hosea, Baalism is not separated from the worship of calves, and it is difficult to determine where Hosea exposes the worship of Baal, and where - the deformed worship of Yahweh.
People think that it is enough to perform magnificent services and make sacrifices. Meanwhile, God expects something else:
Your piety is like the morning mist and like dew that quickly disappears. Therefore I struck through the prophets and smote them with the words of My mouth... For I want mercy, and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings. ( 6 , 4-6)
These last words will be repeated by Christ the Savior when He denounces the hypocrisy of the scribes and Pharisees (Matt. 9, 13).
The prophet especially blames the priests and leaders of the people. The priests are guilty not only of neglecting the commandments and seducing the people, but also of abandoning their duty to teach the people ( 4 :6). Also, Israel set up kings for itself contrary to the will of God ( 8 :4), and now the monarchs are pushing it to destruction. Usurpers are fighting for power, short-sighted politicians are rushing from one extreme to another: they either bow to Assyria, or enter into alliances against it.
Disasters as admonition.
Israel itself is responsible for future disasters; it “sowed the wind and will reap the whirlwind” ( 8 :7). Already in 4 :3, the prophet Hosea announces the judgment of God, which will be expressed in the destruction of all living beings. Here the judgment of the Lord is presented in the form of anti-creation: first people will be destroyed, then animals (“beasts”), birds and fish.
Next, the prophet specifies what exactly the judgment of Israel will consist of. Israel awaits a devastating invasion of the Assyrians and complete defeat and devastation ( 13 , 15 – 14 , 1). It is repeatedly said that Israel will lose its independence (“Assur - he will be its king”; see 11 , 5) and will be taken into captivity, where it will experience numerous hardships ( 9 , 2-4). Israel will, as it were, return to the time when it was a slave in a foreign land. Often the Assyrian captivity is compared with Egyptian slavery ( 7 , 16; 8 , 13). The covenant, the marriage union of God and His people, will be broken. However, Hosea is not limited to these dire prophecies. Disasters will not result in death, but will become heavenly admonitions.
3. Repentance and restoration of the Covenant. All the punishments, all the formidable punishments were only an educational measure. By punishing the faithful, God cannot change His being. And His essence is merciful love: “What will I do with you, Ephraim? How can I betray you, Israel? ... My heart turned in Me, all My pity kindled! I will not do according to the fury of My wrath, I will not destroy Ephraim, for I am God and not man ( 11 :8-9)
The prophet calls on the people: “Turn, O Israel, to the Lord your God” ( 14 :2). Lost Israel will return and be accepted: “I will heal their backsliding, I will love them with good pleasure” ( 14 :5).
Finally, the Lord Himself awaits the conversion of Israel and, as it were, puts into the mouths of the people words that express hope for healing and restoration ( 6 :1-3). It should be noted here that the healing of Israel will be rapid, like the three days recovery of a sick person (literal meaning). However, the prophecy also has a messianic meaning. The Apostle Paul says that Christ “was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15 :4). However, only in this place in the Old Testament (along with the type of Jonah) is there a mention of a return to life in three days.
BOOK OF THE PROPHET ISAIAH.
It is the largest prophetic book in volume and the most frequently cited in both the New Testament (more than 60 direct quotations and 40 indirect references) and in theological literature.
Time to serve.
Determined based on the combination Is. 1 , 1 and 6 , 1. The year of the calling of the prophet is quite clearly indicated - this is the year of the death of King Uzziah ( 6 , 1), i.e. 740 BC. At the same time, the last Jewish king contemporary with Isaiah was Hezekiah (729 - 686) and under this king, Isaiah survived the siege of Jerusalem by the Assyrians, which took place in 701. Consequently, Isaiah's ministry ends around 690.
About the death of the prophet
the Bible doesn't say. However, there is a legend that arose in the Jewish environment of the 1st-2nd centuries AD. and subsequently underwent Christian processing. It was already known to Christian writers of the first centuries (Tertullian, Origen, Epiphanius). It tells how in the days of Manasseh the king's servants captured Isaiah and tortured him into recanting the prophecies he had uttered. Because Isaiah remained adamant, he was sawed in half with a wooden saw.
As confirmation, they point out that in 2 Kings. 21:16 speaks of the persecution that Manasseh instituted against the zealots of the true faith. Also in Heb. 11:37 it says that some of the Old Testament righteous were sawn apart. Despite the indirect references given, the historical value of this legend, which many biblical scholars consider an apocrypha (legend), is doubtful.
Historical situation.
The prophet Isaiah was called by the Lord in the year of the death of King Uzziah, during whose reign the “golden age” of Judah occurred. After Uzziah reigns the pious king Jotham, whose rule the sacred author generally approves, except perhaps condemns him for maintaining his heights. After Jotham, one of the most wicked kings in the entire history of Judah, Ahaz, reigns. In Judea, not only the Canaanite cults of Baal and Astarte are being revived, but other foreign religions are also appearing. Temples, altars, high places, and statues of idols are being built throughout Judea and Jerusalem. For some time, sacrifices were made to idols on the territory of the Jerusalem temple, and vessels and other temple objects were also used for idolatry. In the end, on the instructions of Ahaz, the gates of the temple were completely closed and worship services were stopped.
After Ahaz, Hezekiah reigned, who immediately began religious reforms in 715 BC. First of all, Hezekiah cleansed the temple of elements of idolatry, then solemnly celebrated the Passover holiday. After this, a decisive struggle against idolatry began throughout Judea. Images of pagan gods (“statues”) were destroyed and sacred trees associated with the cult of Astarte were cut down. Also for the first time the Yahwist heights were destroyed; Now the only place to worship God was the Jerusalem temple. Finally, Hezekiah even destroyed the copper serpent, which by that time had become an object of worship (2 Kings. 18, 4).
In Jerusalem, Hezekiah again organized a series of priests and Levites who were required to regularly offer the sacrifices established by the law. To support the priests and Levites, Hezekiah demanded tithes. The service was again performed with the singing of psalms and playing musical instruments.
In 705 Sargon II died and Sennacherib ascended the throne. Uprisings began throughout the Assyrian kingdom. Hezekiah perceived this fact as a favorable moment and stopped paying tribute to the Assyrian king. Soon after this, Hezekiah is struck by a fatal illness (2 Kings 20 1-11; Isaiah 38 ), from which the Lord heals him through the prophet Isaiah.
After recovery, Hezekiah began to actively prepare to repel the Assyrian threat. It was to this time that the embassy of the Babylonian ruler Marduk-apla-iddin dates back, who in 703 seized power in Babylon for the second time and in this situation was looking for allies. Hezekiah shows the guests all his wealth and weapons, which indicates his readiness to oppose Assyria along with Marduk-apla-iddin. However, Isaiah, who was a strong opponent of this kind of treaties, openly condemned Hezekiah. Soon after 702, news of the defeat and flight of Marduk-apla-iddin comes to Jerusalem, so that Judea is again left alone in the face of the Assyrian threat. At this time, Hezekiah strengthens the walls of Jerusalem, builds another outer wall and a water supply system.
In 701 Sennacherib led his troops to Palestine. As a result of military operations, many Jewish cities were destroyed, and a large number of inhabitants were taken into captivity. Hezekiah began negotiations for peace. Sennacherib demanded a huge tribute; Hezekiah collected all the riches of Jerusalem and was able to pay what he asked. But the Assyrian king was not satisfied with this, since he wanted to punish the unfaithful Hezekiah and began the siege of Jerusalem.
Despite all the efforts of the Assyrian troops, the capital of Judea did not submit to them, as a miracle happened: in one night a large number of people were defeated in the Assyrian camp. After this, the siege of Jerusalem was lifted and Sennacherib's army left. However, despite the miraculous deliverance of Jerusalem, Judah continued to pay tribute to Assyria and submit to it in all respects.
Composition of the book.
The book of the prophet Isaiah is the work of not just one sacred author, but the spiritual testimony of an entire school founded by Isaiah, the son of Amoz. This is the main conclusion of modern biblical studies. The question of the composition of the book of Isaiah was first raised in the Middle Ages. Until this time, Jewish tradition attributed it to the great Jerusalem prophet of the 8th century (see Sir. XLVIII, 27-28). All Christian interpreters held the same opinion. The first to question the unity of the book of Isaiah was the rabbi-commentator Abraham Ibn Ezra (mid-12th century). Christian writers were the first to put forward a theory about the existence of two authors of the book Doderlein (1775) and Eigorn (1780). This is how the concept of Deuteronomy arose .
The main arguments for dividing the book of Isaiah into two parts can be summarized as follows.
1) Isaiah died 100 years before the destruction of Jerusalem, while the 2nd part of the book was written after the destruction of Jerusalem (LI, 17-23), talking about the future revival of this city (XLIV, 26-28).
2) The 2nd part of the book was written after the destruction of the temple (XLIV, 26-28), the restoration of the temple is expected (LXVI, 1).
3) The general background of the 2nd part of the book is Babylon. The author addresses the Jews living in Babylon (XLIII, 14; XLVIII, 20), speaks of the imminent end of captivity and a new exodus (XL, 1-11; LI, 3, 14), expects the fall of Babylon in the near future (XLIII, 14 -15; XLVIII). At the same time, Assyria, the world power of the 2nd half of the 8th century, which subjugated the entire Middle East in the days of Isaiah, is spoken of only once, and it is mentioned as an oppressor in the past (LII, 4).
4) The Prophet Isaiah took an active part in the political life of his time, was close to the court, and denounced those in power. At the same time, in the 2nd part of the book there are neither these denunciations nor any mention of the kings of Judah.
5) In the 2nd part of the book there is no emphasis on the historical role of the house of David; a different image of the Messiah is presented - not a descendant of David, but a suffering “servant of Yahweh”.
6) The only historical person named in the 2nd part of the book is Cyrus the Great (559 - 530), who captured Babylon and gave the Jews the opportunity to return to their homeland (XLIV, 28 - XLV, 4).
7) While Isaiah of Jerusalem spoke about the disasters that would befall Judah, the 2nd part of the book begins with the message that the time of disasters has passed (XL, 1-2), imbued with optimism.
The theology of both parts of the book ( 1 - 39 and 40 - 66 ) is in many ways similar, as is their language, but the second part reveals a deepening and addition of the teaching of Isaiah the First, in which we find neither the suffering “servant of Yahweh” nor the theme of the New Jerusalem; both are characteristic features of the theology of Second Isaiah.
All the noted features led biblical scholars to the conclusion that the second part of the book (chap. 40 - 66 ) was written not by Isaiah of Jerusalem, but by his follower, who lived during the Captivity. Since the 18th century, it began to be called Deuteroisaiah (the names Deuteroisaiah and Isaiah of Babylonia are also found).
Why were the inspired prophecies of Second Isaiah included in the book of the Jerusalem prophet? Some biblical scholars suggest that he also bore the name Isaiah, so that manuscript collectors identified him with the 8th century prophet. Others believe that the prophet himself chose to remain anonymous for various reasons. But in any case, there is unity of spirit and similarity of style between both prophets. They are united by the main emphasis on the theme of salvation, attitude towards the cult, and close attention to the Messiah as a person. The prophet Isaiah had disciples during his lifetime. Apparently, the author of the second part of the book belonged to this school, which did not disappear after the death of Isaiah.
Supporters of the traditional opinion explain all of the indicated distinctive features of the 2nd part of the book with the prophetic foresight of Isaiah of Jerusalem. But, as one of the modern biblical scholars rightly says, “a prophecy, in the last 16 chapters detailing what was to happen two centuries after it was written, would be unique among prophetic writings, and it is difficult to understand which purpose it might have served for Isaiah’s contemporaries.”[2] In pre-revolutionary times, among Orthodox authors, the theory of Deuteronomy was accepted by such prominent scientists as S. Trubetskoy and B. Turaev.
At the end of the 19th century, the famous Western biblical scholar Doom separated chapters LVI - LXVI into a special section, which he designated as Tritoisaiah
. He recognized this part as heterogeneous, not being the work of a single author. The general background of these chapters is Palestine. It is said that the temple has already been restored (LVI, 5, 7; LX, 7), there are no city walls yet (LX, 10), but their restoration is expected (LXII, 6). On these grounds, it is concluded that the 3rd part of the book of Isaiah was compiled by the disciples of Deuteronomy after the return of the first group of immigrants. However, not all critics share this view, pointing to the unity of the vocabulary of all chapters XL - LXVI, confirmed in 1970 by machine analysis, and some of its differences from the vocabulary of the 1st part of the book of Isaiah. Therefore, many believe that the 3rd part of the book was also written by Deuteronomy, but after returning from captivity, while chapters XL - LV were written by him in Babylon.
Thus, the book of Isaiah is divided into parts as follows:
1) Protoisaiah (I – XXXIX);
2) Second Isaiah (XL – LXVI).
Protoisaiah (I – XXXIX).
The book is an anthology - a collection of individual prophecies pronounced on different occasions, in connection with different events and circumstances, and combined into one book by a post-captivity editor. The chronology in the book is confused. In particular, the calling of the prophet is spoken of only in chapter VI, and not at the beginning.
740 : Chapter VI
740 – 735 : Chapters I – V.
735 – 716 : VII – XII chapter.
716 – 705 : XIV, 24 – XXII ch..
705 – 690 : XXIII, XXVIII – XXXIII chapters.
Finally, a number of chapters do not belong directly to Isaiah; they were composed in the post-exilic era:
a) XIII, 1 – XIV, 23 . The prophecy was probably written around 539, shortly before the fall of Babylon. This is a formidable hymn about the fall of Babylon, a city that embodied the great kingdoms of this world, built on lies and violence. The image of Babylon takes on an even broader meaning in the hymn: it is likened to Satan, who rebelled against God and was cast into the Underworld. Although the prophecy mentions m
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