Teachings of Christian apologists (Tertullian, Justin Martyr). Philosophy of the Alexandrian School (Clement of Alexandria, Origen)

Tertullian Quintus Septimius Florence
(Tertullianus), famous Christian theologian (III century). Born in Carthage c. 160, in the family of a centurion; received a law degree and was considered an excellent lawyer.

It is unknown when Tertullian converted to Christianity, but ca. 195, after his conversion, he returned to Carthage, where approx. 200 was ordained as a presbyter and where, in the words of St. Jerome, lived “to a ripe old age.” In full bloom, he turned to Montanism (c. 202), to which he remained faithful until the end of his life. Montanism perfectly suited his passionate character and strict way of thinking.

He died at a very old age. The year of death is unknown. His activities coincided with the reign of Septimius Severus and Caracalla. Scanty biographical information about him is found in his writings, as well as in Jerome and Eusebius.

Tertullian's writings are extremely important for the history of the Church and interesting from a philosophical point of view.

Some scientists explain the passion of African writers by the properties of the inhabitants (Berbers), who adopted a culture alien to them - first Semitic (Phoenician), then Roman and partly Greek. Tertullian is a typical Christian writer of the early 3rd century on African soil. He represents a typical example of a Latin, Western Catholic writer, occupied primarily with practical issues, in contrast to the speculative direction of Eastern Christian writers.

The contrast between Tertullian and his contemporary Origen is curious. The latter embodied Christian idealism, the former tries to consistently implement materialism, as far as it is compatible with Christianity. Origen stands for a mystical understanding of Christianity, for an allegorical interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, and Tertullian tries to literally understand the texts. Origen is interested primarily in speculative questions; Tertullian is interested in questions of discipline and Christian life. Origen has a certain inclination towards Gnosticism, Tertullian became interested in Montanism, the direct opposite of Gnosticism.

Tertullian was a man of extensive education who also wrote in Greek (Greek works have been lost). The tone of his writings is almost always harsh, passionate, polemical; He does not spare his opponents, often resorting to insinuations and sophistical turns of thought. The style is fully consistent with the original character of the author: unnatural, elevated, often incorrect language, difficult to understand, but at the same time rich in comparisons and antitheses; a thought is often expressed so briefly and aptly that it becomes a proverb.

Tertullian is the direct predecessor of Blessed Augustine, one of the founders of Western Latin theology; He was the first to raise and resolve some dogmatic questions.

The opposition between faith and knowledge was expressed in the famous formula attributed to Tertullian: credo quia absurdum est (“I believe because it is absurd”). Of the ancient writers, only the Stoics, especially Seneca, please Tertullian. The reason for this sympathy is clear: in Tertullian’s thinking we encounter an attempt to unite the same opposites that the Stoics united, i.e. supranaturalistic tendencies with extreme materialism.

In ethics, Tertullian has dualistic tendencies, in the theory of knowledge - sensualistic, in psychology - materialistic. Senses do not deceive, everything that exists is bodily; even God, who created matter out of nothing, has a body; the immortal soul is just as corporeal. “There is nothing incorporeal except that which is not.” If the soul were not corporeal, it could not influence the body. The soul of a child passes from the father through the seed. Thus, Tertullian is a representative of traducianism in contrast to creationism (the creation of the soul) and Plato's theory of pre-existence. All human souls are the offspring of Adam's soul. The qualities of the soul are hereditary, which explains original sin. God is one, eternal, free; The Holy Spirit came from God, like a ray of sunshine from the sun. God is prior to the Son, but not in time, for time arose only with the world. The world is not eternal, but God will create it out of nothing.

On the way to Christ

Tertullian (full name: Quintus Septimius Florence Tertullian) is etched in the consciousness of the Church as one of the outstanding Christian thinkers, a prolific writer, a dogmatist, a courageous apologist, and a zealous denouncer of heretics.
Meanwhile, despite such high merits, he is not listed among the holy fathers of the Church. This is due to the deviation of his views from the purity of Orthodoxy and disobedience to the Church, committed at the end of his life. Little is known about Tertullian's childhood. He was born in Carthage, in the family of a Roman officer, a centurion, between the years 150 and 170. In his youth and youth he received a full secular education. It appears from a number of early sources, including his own writings, that he was well versed in jurisprudence; was familiar with Greek and Latin poets and philosophers; oriented in medicine; spoke Greek.

For all his education, in his youth he led an immoral life, common for that debauched pagan environment in which he grew up, was brought up and matured.

Tertullian spent most of his life in Carthage. As is clear from his works, he admired the history of this city and its heroes. For some time, not for long, Tertullian lived in Rome: in all likelihood, he practiced law there.

His conversion to Christianity is believed to have occurred around 190. Under what circumstances he decided to change his worldview and who led him to Christ is unknown with certainty.

Having accepted Baptism, Tertullian married a Christian girl, and lived with her for many years.

During the same period, he was awarded ordination as a presbyter. Tertullian treated his priestly duties responsibly, as befitted a good Christian shepherd.

Without limiting his activities to caring for his own flock, he made every effort to spread the faith among the pagans, preached a lot, and was engaged in writing. The works he created touched on issues of doctrine, morality and morality.

Tertullian and his Apology

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TERTULLIAN AND HIS "APOLOGY"

We meet the outstanding Christian writer-apologist Tertullian as an adult. Relatively little is known about Tertullian’s childhood and adolescence. He was born around 160 in Carthage in the family of a centurion (centurion) of the proconsular troops, in a pagan environment (“We came from your midst,” he addresses the pagans). In his youth, he received the usual education for wealthy people of that time: he graduated from a rhetoric school in Carthage and a special law school. Then he went to Rome, where he acted in court as both a lawyer and a prosecutor, gaining quite wide fame for himself. There is reason to believe that the lawyer of the same name, mentioned in the Pandects (the main component of the Corpus juris civilis, a monument of Roman law from the time of Emperor Justinian, 6th century), is identical to Tertullian. We find information about Tertullian’s life in his own writings and mentions of him by ancient writers - Eusebius Pamphilus. Bishop of Caesarea (IV century), and Blessed Jerome († c. 420)*.

During the Roman period of his life, Tertullian, by his own admission, indulged in all the pagan pleasures of riotous metropolitan life, was a lover of thrills, theatrical and circus shows (gladiatorial fights), and considered Christianity madness. “But sensuality could not satiate and lull the soul, and the wondrous sight of the extraordinary firmness of the martyrs turned the persecutor into a friend of the unjustly persecuted: [around 190-105] Tertullian received Holy Baptism. The following year he married a Christian” (N.V. Savelyev-Rostislavich. Tertullian and his century. St. Petersburg, 1848, p. 5). Returning to his native Carthage, Tertullian left government service; he devoted his leisure time to the study of philosophy and theology. In 195 he received the rank of presbyter**.

While still at school, Tertullian learned Greek, which he spoke fluently; he knew well the works of some ancient philosophers, lawyers, and physicians, and was fluent in the art of oratory (it was no coincidence that he was compared to Demosthenes). Tertullian dedicated his knowledge and talents received from the Lord to the service of Christianity. Already in the rank of presbyter, he took up active writing. The language of his writings is replete with legal terms: he skillfully uses his knowledge of jurisprudence, exposing pagan judges in violating elementary legality. In defending Christianity, Tertullian sometimes uses arguments that were made by Greek apologists, such as his older contemporaries - Tatian or Bishop Theophilus of Antioch. But what was rather chaotic and confusing for them, under the pen of Tertullian, formed into a coherent system, logical and inspiredly convincing. It is unlikely that Emperor Severus (193-211) was aware of the writings of Greek apologists. But we have little doubt that Tertullian’s writings were known to him. A zealous defender of Christianity, he became a defender of the true achievements of Roman society, defended the principles of justice, equality of citizens before the law, freedom of conscience, and respect for the views of others. He loved to teach and instruct, but even more, perhaps, he loved to argue and denounce. The proconsul and his council, pagan society, zealots of Old Testament legality, heretics, unworthy clergy - at all

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* Eusebius Pamphilus. Church history (Historia Ecclesiastica), book. II, ch. 2: Blessed Jerome of Stridon. On famous men (De viris illustribus), ch. 53.

** Some researchers question this. See: J. Klein. Tertullian. Christliches Bewusstsein und sittliche Forderung. Düsseldorf, 1940, S. 268-273.

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He brought down both the force of his denunciations and all the bitterness of ridicule. His style, excited, uneven, burning, well reflected the paradoxical nature of her bold thoughts and his frantic nature. He minted short formulas of unforgettable beauty and power, and he also dissipated in the repetition of rather monotonous, almost colorless phrases; he could write simply and convincingly, but he left some texts that needed to be solved like riddles, and sometimes he stooped to court twists and chicanery. A man of great and clear mind, he sometimes forgot to turn to him for advice; He perfectly described the life of the Christian community, peaceful and orderly, but he lived without knowing peace himself, alien to all worldly prudence. Tertullian’s rejection of the contemporary Roman (pagan) civilization was deeper than that of the Greek-speaking apologists - Tatian (born about 120) or Bishop Theophilus of Antioch (end of the 2nd century): “He not only condemns its philosophical schools ... but also close to the view that civilization has generally spoiled and perverted man, suppressed his natural positive inclinations, building on top of them a whole world of artificial and untrue values... Tertullian sees a way out of this situation in cynic simplification and a return to the natural state. However, in his opinion, this state of simplicity and naturalness can be achieved only through the Christian faith, self-knowledge and asceticism” (G. G. Mayorov. Formation of medieval philosophy. Latin Patristics. M., 1979, pp. 111-112).

True faith, and not superstition, Tertullian believed, is always a feat, a breakthrough into the sphere of the spirit; the strength of faith can be directly proportional to the apparent absurdity (absurdity) of its provisions from the point of view of ordinary everyday reason. “I believe because it is absurd” (“credo, quia absurdum”)—this saying is attributed to Tertullian not without reason: corresponding paradoxes can be found in his writings. But the contrast between faith and reason that seems so sharp is removed if we consider them in the context of Revelation, which gives “unreasonable” faith a super-rational meaning. For Divine Revelation is incommensurable with human, rather limited ideas; and the more the truths of Revelation seem incomprehensible and impossible, the more reason there is for theft and their transcendence and truth. Rejecting reason grounded in everyday life, Tertullian also rejected elitist intellectualism, alien to faith: “What do Athens and Jerusalem have in common? At the Academy and the Church? (“De pracscriptione haereticorum”, ch. 7).

This statement is often quoted, reproaching the thinker for obscurantism, even by Christian theologians. At the same time, it is somehow forgotten that Tertullian’s saying is a reminiscence of a much deeper, fundamental thought of the holy Apostle Paul: “But we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to the Jews, and foolishness to the Greeks, but to those who are called, Jews and Greeks, Christ, the God of God.” The Power and Wisdom of God" (1 Cor. 1:23-24).

Tertullian valued human and natural reason, natural common sense very highly (see: De testimonio animae, chapter 3). According to his deep conviction, the human soul, unspoiled by civilization, is Christian by nature: “Let a person begin to listen to the voice of his soul, and then the True God will not be unknown to him” (“De testimonio animae”, Chapter 2). That is why the Lord Jesus Christ chose the apostles not from philosophers and scribes, but from simple fishermen. Any departure from pure faith towards its rationalization and philosophization is fraught with a perversion of Christian teaching and heresy. Therefore, Tertullian devoted so much strength and energy to the criticism of Judaism and Gnosticism. It was no coincidence that he called the synagogues of that time “sources of persecution” of Christians: Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea (IV century), describes in “Church History” with what joyful haste the Jews collected brushwood for the fire to which the Hieromartyr Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, was sentenced, f 167 (see Theological Works, collection 24, pp. 127-128). Hence the pathos of Tertullian’s famous work “Against the Jews” (“Adversus Judaeos”).

With the evolution of Judaism in the 1st-2nd centuries. The spread of Gnosticism is also closely related. Gnosticism appears during this period as an attempt to find a certain ideological synthesis of various religious and philosophical movements and esoteric traditions, which objectively created the ground for the emergence of a wide variety of heresies *.

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* Gnosticism should not be confused with gnosis (νγωσις - knowledge, knowledge) of Clement, Bishop of Alexandria († c. 215), Origen, Presbyter of Alexandria († 254), and other outstanding early Christian thinkers, who were highly valued by the holy fathers and who are considered teachers Churches.

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Tertullian wrote not only against the Gnostics in general, but also against individual Gnostic schools (against the Valentinians, against Hermogenes, against Marcion) with his characteristic passion and ardor. Abstract metaphysics and pure “philosophical” speculation were alien to him: he either ridiculed the Gnostics, or simply forbade them to use the Holy Scriptures and interpret it: there is no need to search and explore when everything has already been found and explained: “Why Athens when there is Jerusalem?”

It was these words that turned out to be fatal: the fanatics of subsequent centuries used them in their campaign against ancient culture in general. Philosophy, which Clement, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of bright, broad mind, considered a gift sent from God to the Hellenes in order to “prepare the way for the Lord,” was declared a relic of paganism. Origen, presbyter of Alexandria, subsequently had to justify himself that he was engaged in “secular sciences” and defend the educational program of the Alexandrian Catechetical School (the first Christian university), into which these sciences were introduced. Speaking about Tertullian’s maximalism, we should also say about his passion for Montanism. In 200-207 Tertullian joined the apocalyptic community, the founder of which was a certain Montanus from Phrygia (according to Eusebius Pamphilus, Montanus began to prophesy in 172, announcing the imminent descent of Heavenly Jerusalem).

Montanism revealed severe ascetic features: it prescribed a more strict spiritual discipline than that then accepted by the Church, in particular, increased fasting (dry eating), flight from persecution, second marriage in the event of the death of one of the spouses, etc. were prohibited. Professor I.V. Popov believes that Tertullian’s rigorism could not be satisfied with the degree of moral strictness that characterized the morals of the church majority at that time—and this is the reason for his passion for Montanism (Lecture notes on patrolology. Sergiev Posad, 1916, p. 69).

Let us add that Tertullian was attracted to the Montanist community by the attempt to revive the spirit of apostolic Christianity in the face of the threat of the secularization of the Church. The spiritual enthusiasm and prophecy of the Montanists were internally close to Tertulian. who was inclined to consider them “pneumatics” (“spiritual”), in contrast to ordinary Christians - “psychics” (“spiritual”). It is important not to forget that the Montanists recognized all Christian Sacraments and holidays; there were no dogmatic differences between them and representatives of other Christian communities.

In the truths of the faith that Tertullian defended in his writings against the heretics Marcion, Valentinus, Hermogenes, Praxeus and others, the Montanists agreed with the Church. Therefore, Tertullian is a Montanist, Archpriest A. M. Ivantsov-Platonov rightly emphasizes. wrote his works against heretics, remaining completely orthodox. “One can even say more: the Montanists treated the Gnostic and Patripassian heresies with greater ardor and passion than the Orthodox... If they can be reproached, it would be more likely for excessive ardor and harshness against heretics than for a lack of zeal for the defense of Christian truth” (Heresies and schisms of the first three centuries of Christianity. M., 1887, p. 242).

Apparently, Tertullian understood the falsity of the ascetic excesses of the Montanist community. Subsequently, he left the Montanists and founded his own community in Carthage, according to the testimony of Blessed Augustine (“De haeresibus”, cap. LXXXVI). This community had its own temple - a basilica: its remains were annexed to the Church by St. Augustine at the beginning of the 5th century.

Tertullian died at an old age, around 222-223.

The ancient teachers of the Church spoke with great praise of Tertullian's learning and talents and were well acquainted with his works. The Hieromartyr Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage († 257. Comm. August 31), read the works of Tertullian every day and considered him his teacher (Filaret, Archbishop of Chernigov and Nizhyn. Historical teaching about the Fathers of the Church. Vol. 1. St. Petersburg.. 1859, p. 184 ). Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Caesarea, mentioned him as “one of the most illustrious” (“Ecclesiastical History”, book II, chapter 2), and Blessed Jerome of Stridon († c. 420) said that “in his learning and accuracy Tertullian’s intelligence is superior to others” (“On Famous Men,” ch. 53).

According to prof. L.P. Karsavina, Tertullian is “one of the most striking, irreconcilable and rhetorically fiery opponents of gnosis... one of the most characteristic representatives and even founders of Western Christianity...” (Holy Fathers and Teachers of the Church. Disclosure of Orthodoxy in their creations. Paris, 1920, p. 61). “Tertullian is not only a Christian thinker in the broad sense.

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but also ecclesiastical,” emphasizes G. G. Mayorov (op. cit., p. 116). Archpriest Georgy Florovsky believes that the ancient church custom of contrasting the Church and heresy, first of all, as love and discord, communication and loneliness, used by A. S. Khomyakov, goes back to Bishop Irenaeus and Tertullian of Lyon (Paths of Russian Theology. Paris, 1937, p. 278).

Tertullian's influence on Byzantine (Greek-speaking) theology was, however, relatively small. This is explained, first of all, by the fact that he wrote in Latin. In addition, the reputation of a “montanist” created a certain prejudice towards him. And, naturally, one should not look for dogmatic certainty from him: Tertullian lived before the era of the Ecumenical Councils, when the very language of theology was just being created.

As a writer, Tertullian stands at the origins of church Latin. Being a bilingual writer, equally fluent in two languages ​​- Greek and Latin, he was able to find or create equivalent new formations in the Latin language to convey complex theological terms from Greek.

According to the calculations of German researchers G. Gendler. Tertullian created 982 new terms in Latin (“Von Tertullian bis zu Ambrosius.” Berlin, 1978, S. 22). It should be especially noted that the origin of the central Christian term Trinity (from Latin tria+unitas) goes back to Tertullian. “Many of his ideas,” notes V.V. Bychkov, “served as a model, a “rule” (regula fidei) for his Latin followers right up to [Blessed] Augustine” (Aesthetics of Late Antiquity. M., 1981, p. 48). It is also worthy of attention that Tertullian writes with reverence about the Mother of God - the Virgin (“Apologeticum”, chapter 21) long before the holy Cappadocian fathers,

Tertullian's anthropology is of significant interest to modern theological thought. In his works, he sought answers to many cardinal questions of existence: about the nature and origin of the soul, about the purpose of man, about his future (after death) life, etc. It can be said that the inquisitive philosopher Tertullian acted as a “brilliant questioner” of antiquity. In contrast to later “questioners” closer to our time, such as, for example, Lev Shestov. Tertullian had the deepest faith and inner conviction that he was right; asking, he answered.

The soul, according to Tertullian, is “the breath of God” (“Dei flatus”) (cf. Gen. 2:7). In this matter he follows Plato, for whom the soul is “divine, rational, monotonous and indivisible” (Phaedo, 80a). However, Plato's unconditional spiritualism is alien to him. Based on the testimony of Holy Scripture about the relative corporeality and possible (under special conditions) visibility of the soul (Rev. 6:9; Luke 10:23), he teaches that the soul is “corpus sui generis” (“a body of its kind”), has its own appearance (habitus, effigies), boundary (terminus), three dimensions (“On the Soul,” Chapter 8). Tertullian considers Plato’s theory of the pre-existence of souls “fabulous” and resolutely rejects (ibid., chapters 20 and 27), as well as the opinion that the soul is created only at the very moment of birth. Citing references to the Holy Scriptures (Gen. 25, 22-23, Luke 1, 41-44; 70-80, etc.). Tertullian argues that the development of the soul is connected with the growth of the body. The body for Tertullian has great value, it is “cardo salulis” (“anchor of salvation”) for the soul; “The body is washed [in the baptismal font] so that the soul may be cleansed of stains; the body is anointed so that the soul is sanctified; the body is marked so that the soul is strengthened; the body is overshadowed by the laying on of hands, so that the soul is sanctified by the Spirit...” (“On the Resurrection of the Flesh,” chapter 8). Tertullian teaches about the destruction of the body, but about its change (demutatio) in the life of the next century, when the body is resurrected in transformed flesh.

During his lifetime, Tertullian was famous both among Christians and pagans. Death did not destroy this fame: among the works of Latin writers, only his “Apology” was soon awarded translation into Greek. Time has erased his mistakes and errors; In the grateful memory of posterity, he remained a courageous fighter for Christianity, fearlessly defending eternal truth with word and pen.

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Tertullian’s “Apology” (other Russian names for the same work: “Apologetic”, “Apologetics”) is perhaps the most famous of his works. “The question of the time of origin of “Apologetics” has been studied by as many scientists as have not dealt with any other question related to this work, and their opinions on this issue are different” (I. Shcheglov. Apologetician of Tertullian. - “Proceedings of the Kyiv Theological Academy.” 1887. No. 9, p. 3). Some researchers

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They believe that the Apology was written by Tertullian shortly before his death, but the majority is inclined to believe that this work dates back to 197-199. N. Shcheglov convincingly proves that the “Apology” was written in 199-200, considering the following words from chapter 35 of this work to be the key to resolving this issue: “Where did Cassia, Nigra and Albina come from? * Where did those who lay in wait for the emperor “between two laurels"? Where do those who practiced on the palaestra come from to strangle him? Where did those who burst into the palace with weapons in their hands come from? They are more daring than all the Sigerians and Parthenians...** And now every day they expose members and supporters of criminal parties: the trees were cut down, but the shoots survived” (cited new translation).

European scientists Baronius and Mosheim recognized the mentioned attackers, who are discussed further in Tertullian, as followers of Albinus, and Tillemon, Lumper and Boehringer as followers of Niger. Niger was killed in 194 at the Battle of Issus, and his followers continued resistance until 196, until they were defeated in Syria by Emperor Septimius Severus. The persecution of their remnant falls on the years 199-200, when, in all likelihood, the Apology was written. There is reason to believe that around 204 Tertullian traveled from Carthage to Rome, where he presented to the Senate his “Apology” - an eloquent word in defense of Christians.

This polemical work of Tertullian brought the author well-deserved fame and became widely known in the medieval world. Suffice it to say that “Apology” was among the printed publications during the “cradle” period of book printing: it was published in the original language in Venice in 1483 and 1494, in Paris in 1500 and 1502. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Editions of the Apology appeared translated into various European languages: French (1636), English (1655), Spanish (1657), German (1082), Italian (1756) and others.

The first translation into Russian known to us belongs to Bishop Afanasy (Ivanov) of Kolomna and Tula (M., ed. Synodal Printing House, 1802).

K. M. Mazurin, one of the subsequent translators of the Apology, wrote about this translation: “A very accurate translation of Apologetics, although, of course, outdated in language” (Tertullian and his works. M., 1893, p. XXVI) .

In 1847, a translation of “Apologetics” by E. Karneev was published in St. Petersburg. This translation appears to have been made with an intermediary French translation in mind; in places it is inaccurate, in others it is a transcription; The phrases and insertions missing from the Latin original, added to the French translation of Genoude, are also present in the translation by E. Karneev. This translation has certain literary merits; N. Savelyev-Rostislavich in his review calls it “wonderful” (op. cit., p. 36), Archpriest A. M. Ivantsov-Platonov calls it “quite expressive” (Heresies and schisms of the first three centuries of Christianity. M., 1877 , p. 235).

“If you, the leaders of the Roman Empire, in an open and elevated place, and almost at the very top of the city*** for the judgment of the presiding judges, cannot clearly consider and examine before everyone what exactly is the cause of Christians,” the bishop begins the translation of the “Apology” Athanasius, and continues: then allow the truth, at least through the secret way of silent writing, to reach your ears. She doesn't ask for anything less about her business; because she is not surprised at her condition, knowing that she is a stranger on earth, and that she conveniently finds enemies among strangers. And yet she has a birth, a home, hope, grace, and dignity in heaven, wanting one thing at the same time, so that they do not condemn her without knowing about her. What do the laws that rule in their kingdom lose if she is listened to? But will their power be more glorified by this, so that they will condemn even the truth they have heard?” (Quinta Septima Floronta Tertullian Protected Christians. M., 1802, pp. 2-3).

Below is the same fragment translated by E. Karneev, K. M. Mazurin,

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* Avidius Cassius - commander who proclaimed himself emperor during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (175); Gaius Pescenius Niger and Clodius Albinus, after the assassination of Emperor Commodus in 193, made illegal claims to the throne.

** Sigerin is a wrestler with whom Emperor Commodus loved to train. He subsequently strangled Commodus (193); Parthenius was a nobleman who enjoyed the favor of Emperor Domitian, but took part in a conspiracy that led to the death of the ruler (96).

*** Implied Capitol.

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N. Shcheglova and, finally, a new translation. Even such a very limited comparison will help us understand the differences in the stylistic manner of the translators and some of the features of their translation.

From the translation by E. Karneev:

“If you, the supreme rulers of the Roman Empire, pronouncing judgment publicly, occupying the highest places in the state, do not have the power in the eyes of the people to carry out accurate research regarding Christians ... then at least let the truth reach your ears through my modest written explanations. Truth does not require mercy, because persecution does not surprise it. Alien on earth, she has no doubt about finding enemies. Daughter of heaven, she has her throne there, there she finds her hopes, her due trust and her glory. Here she wants only one thing: not to be condemned before she is heard. What fear can you have about your laws, allowing truth to defend itself in the seat of their dominion?” (Creations of Tertullian. Part 1. St. Petersburg, 1848, pp. 1-2).

From the translation by K. M. Mazurin:

“If you, the authorities of the Roman Empire, do not wish to allow Christians to defend their cause before the tribunal, where you sit on the most elevated place of the city for the public administration of the court; if, out of fear or shame, you deny the right of every accused person to answer his accuser... then let the truth reach your ears, albeit in a secret way with the help of silent letters! She does not ask for mercy, because she is not surprised by her situation. She knows that she lives on earth, and that among strangers it is always easy to meet enemies; and as for the rest, it has its origin, root soil, hope, love, glory in heaven. One thing she wants is not to judge her without knowing. What will the laws ruling the empire lose if the defense of truth is heard? Or perhaps the power of the latter will be revealed with greater brilliance if they condemn the truth without hearing it?” (Tertullian and his creations. M., 1893, p. 6).

From N. Shcheglov’s translation:

“If you, representatives of the Roman authorities, presiding in an open and high place, almost at the very top of the state, in order to conduct a trial, are not allowed to clearly examine and personally examine what the actual matter of Christians is... then let the truth be allowed to reach your ears at least by the secret path of silent letters. She does not beg for anything for her cause, because she is not surprised at her situation. She knows that she lives on earth as a stranger, that it is easy for her to find enemies among strangers; but at the same time she also knows that she has her origin, home, hope, self-love, honor in heaven. Now she only wishes that they would not judge her without recognizing her. What will the laws ruling in their kingdom lose if they listen to her?” (Creations of Q. Sept. Flor. Tertullian. Part 1. Kyiv, 1910, pp. 81-82).

From the new translation:

“If you, representatives of the Roman state*, standing in full view of the helm of power, to administer justice and openly conduct investigations and proceedings; If it is impossible for you to find out what is the matter with Christians, let these silent lines still bring the truth to your ears in a roundabout way**. She doesn't ask for anything for herself; Nothing in her situation surprises her. She knows that she is a wanderer on earth, that enemies can easily be found among strangers, that her homeland and her abode are in Heaven; She hopes in Heaven, where there is both mercy and love. She wants one thing: don’t judge her without knowing anything about her***. Listen to her: what will be lost from the laws, from their unlimited power in the state, if they listen to her?”

By comparing these different translations, one can be convinced that each of them in its own way enriches the perception of the original, helps to grasp its semantic overtones, and penetrate deeper into the author’s intention. The last translation, with all its formal laconicism and lapidary style, has, perhaps, the greatest se-

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* Romani antistites - officials in Carthage - proconsul and governors of the province.

** Liceat veritati vel occulta via tacitarum litterarum ad avres vestras pervenire.

*** Unum geslit interdum ne ignorata damnetur.

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mantic capacity and significance: here obviously that wonderful metamorphosis took place, that crystallization of meaning, when every phrase, even taken out of context, does not lose its transparency and depth.

In conclusion, we present the full text of the preface to the first Russian edition of Tertullian’s Apology (M., 1802), which has long become a bibliographic rarity. The preface is not signed, but, in all likelihood, belongs to the author of the translation - Bishop of Kolomna and Tula (later Archbishop of Novorossiysk and Dnieper) Athanasius (Ivanov).

* * *

“Tertullian Quintus Septimius Florent, the Theologian, a native of the city of Carthage in Africa, from a noble family, a man most enlightened in various sciences, famous around the year 200 A.D. The story about him is this. He was a presbyter of Carthage, born of a pagan father who served as a centurion in an infantry regiment under the command of the Proconsul, the governor of the province. Soon after accepting the Christian faith, with his excellent talents, he became its zealous defender. He was very skilled in Philosophy, laws, History and pagan Theology. He was famous for his eloquence, understood the Holy Scriptures very well and was distinguished by his piety. In his young years, according to Jerome, he wrote a book about the concerns of marriage and, a few years later, about objections to the claims of heretics (de praescriptionibus contra Haereticos), of which a list was composed from the very beginning of the Church. Then, to restrain the fury of Severov* against Christians, persecution and stop the mouths of slanderers, he published in Rome a very learned Apology, or defensive reasoning, which, during the cruelest city ruler in the Parthian land from Plautian, was rampaging against Christians, in the absence of the emperor, concealing his name, he inscribed to the city rulers and judges. He also published other works against apostates and heretics, Marciopites, Valentinians, Jews and others, whom he struck with the lightning of his eloquence and the power of his arguments more than he convinced. This gave Vincent the opportunity to say: as many words as Tertullian has, so many thoughts; and how many thoughts, so many victories. But, unfortunately for the entire Christian Church, this famous teacher fell into some errors. However, this Apology and many of his other works were written by him before he fell away from the Church; that’s why they were accepted by her, as if they were truly Orthodox.”

___________

* Lucius Septimius Severus (146-211) - Roman commander, proclaimed emperor in 193.

** Saint Vincent of Lyrins (lat. Vincent of Lerens, † before 450, commemorated May 24) - monastic theologian, author of the spiritual instruction “Commonitorium” (under the pseudonym “Peregrine”).

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Apologetic activity

The time of Tertullian's ministry was a time of the most difficult trials for the Church. Christians were persecuted, hated, humiliated, beaten, tortured, tormented, killed.

And Tertullian, sparing no energy, fearing neither informers, nor judges, nor torturers and executioners, spoke out so decisively in defense of Christianity that one can only wonder how, throughout his entire life, he never found himself in prison or a torture chamber.

And this despite the fact that he did not hide from persecution, but as if challenging them, addressed the offenders in the harshest, roughest, and sometimes offensive words. Thus, he called the persecutors of the Church ferocious ignoramuses, desecrators of holy things; ridiculed pagan cults and mysteries, branded idols with shame; threatened the Judgment of God's Truth, the cup of God's wrath.

At the same time, his apologetic works were filled with clear theological and logical argumentation.

During times of persecution, it often happened that Christians were not killed immediately after being exposed as belonging to the Church, but were subjected to terrible beatings and torture, wanting to force them to publicly renounce Christ, make sacrifices to pagan gods, and defile themselves with sacrificial blood.

Categorically objecting to such violence, Tertullian explained to the executioners that if the pagan gods existed in reality, then they would be pleased not with feigned, but with voluntary sacrifices, unless, of course, their gods were litigious.

In addition, as a means of defense, he often used provisions from the field of law (this was reflected in his good legal preparedness).

Appealing to common sense, Tertullian noted that criminals are tortured not so that they renounce involvement in atrocities, but so that they give truthful confessions, rather confess to their crimes. Christians, on the contrary, are tortured so that they refuse to be called Christians: that is, they refuse to recognize themselves as criminals and perpetrators of breaking the law. He saw the absurdity in this.

Tertullian countered the accusations of Christians with violating moral norms and hatred of the authorities, including the emperor, with arguments that refuted the arguments of the accusing side, explained and showed that it is not Christians, but the pagans themselves, who lead a vicious life and incite hatred in society; Christians remain in love and prayer.

In addition to defending Christianity from pagans, Tertullian also defended it from attacks from Jewish fanatics.

Moral principles[ | ]

Tertullian was a strong advocate of strict discipline and strict rules of conduct and, like many African fathers, was one of the leading exponents of rigorism in the early church. These views may have led him to embrace Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the duration of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public entertainment, the covering of virgins, the behavior of women, and the like, he expresses these views.

Based on the principle that we should not look or listen to what we have no right to practice, and that defiled things, seen and touched, pollute (De Spectaculis, viii, xvii), he declared that the Christian should abstain from the theater and amphitheaters . Pagan religious rites were practiced there and the names of pagan deities were mentioned; there the commandments of modesty, purity and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there was no room for the cultivation of Christian grace. Women should put aside their ornaments of gold and precious stones[16], and virgins should obey the law of St. Paul regarding women and keep themselves strictly under cover (De virginibus velandis). He praised the state of celibacy as the highest (De monogamia, xvii; Ad uxorem, I. 3) and urged Christians not to allow the Vestals and Egyptian priests to surpass themselves in celibacy. He even called second marriage a form of adultery (De exhortationis castitatis, ix), but this directly contradicted the letters of the Apostle Paul. Tertullian's decision to never marry again and that no one should remarry again ultimately led to his break with Rome because the orthodox Church refused to follow him in this decision. Instead, he supported the Montanist sect, which also condemned second marriage.[17] One of the reasons for Tertullian's disdain for marriage was his belief in the transformation that awaited the married couple. He believed that marital relations coarsened the body and spirit, dulled their spiritual feelings and averted the Holy Spirit, since the husband and wife became one flesh after marriage[18].

Tertullian had a radical view of space. He believed that heaven and earth intersected at many points and that sexual relations with supernatural beings were possible[19].

Combating False Teachings

Tertullian's merits in the fight against errors cannot be overestimated. In particular, he exposed and exposed such well-known heresies in his time as the heresies of Marcion and Hermogenes.

The first, not understanding the meaning of the Old Testament events, the internal connection of the Testaments, came to the conclusion about two gods: the evil one, described in the Books of the Old Testament, and the good one - the Father of Jesus Christ.

Step by step exposing Marcion's errors, Tertullian showed what God's wrath and God's pedagogy consist of, explained that God is One and Only, that He is not the Author of evil, and His punishment is a manifestation of malice. Using extensive, coherent arguments, resorting to the Scriptures, Tertullian proved that the Wrath of God falls on the lawless not without reasons and not without good providential purposes.

Hermogenes stood on the basis of dualism and blasphemed God, denying the creation of the world from nothing. He taught that the world was created from matter coeternal with God, because if this were not so, God would not be the eternal Lord, since he would not have the subject of dominion coeternal with Him.

Tertullian objected, and successfully, that if Hermogenes were right, God would not be absolute, but limited, and His ability to create would depend not only on His will and perfections, but also on the presence of existing matter. In this case, it would turn out that in order to realize His creative potential, God would need matter.

Value[ | ]

Medieval theologians could not forgive Tertullian for his apostasy from the true Christian faith and transition to Montanism[20][21]. In their works, the founder of Latin theology is mentioned infrequently and not particularly approvingly. Only a few, like St. Cyprian and Blessed Jerome assessed him positively. It was only in the 19th century that Tertullian was fully rediscovered as one of the most significant Latin authors of his time and a key figure in the formation of Western Christianity. In theology, he was interested in aspects not so much metaphysical as practical and legal - and this brings him closer to the teachers of the Catholic Church of subsequent generations. Unlike the Greek fathers, he was hostile to the ancient philosophical tradition and rhetorically asked: “What can Jerusalem have in common with Athens?”

Deviation into Montanism

The jealousy, impetuosity, straightforwardness, and determination of the ardent fighter had difficulty reconciling him with the human weakness that surrounded him. Towards the end of his life, he more and more compared the existing orders in the Church, the behavior of its members with his own idealized ideas, and, alas, he found more and more inconsistencies between them.

Gradually, he began to feel dissatisfied with the way of life of a significant part of the clergy and laity, and began to alienate himself from the Church. Accustomed to expressing himself freely, he even began to speak out against bishops.

In this state of mind, Tertullian encountered the Montanist sect, which had spread by that time. The approximate date of Tertullian's break with the Church is the year 213.

A former pagan priest, Montanus, having converted to Christianity, did not long live the life of an obedient son of the Church. Declaring himself to be God's prophet, he found many followers, formed and led a community. Representatives of this heretical sect were distinguished by excessive “asceticism”, a special ecstatic mood, and a disposition towards mysticism and miracles.

Very quickly, Montanism spread across the territory of Asia Minor, and then reached the Western regions.

The Montanists accused the Church of apostolic traditions, a cooling of the faith, and a lack of prophetic charisma. Imbued with the ideas and rebellious spirit of the heretics, Tertullian began to more actively fight against church foundations.

For example, he began to express a negative attitude towards his second marriage, and then towards marriage in general. Realizing that marriage (with rare exceptions) cannot exist without carnal relations, he began to speak of marriage as tolerable fornication (and this despite the fact that the Sacrament of marriage was blessed by the Lord Himself). Even in his attitude towards childbirth, some disdain began to be seen.

In the end, Tertullian became disillusioned with Montanism, after which he became the head of his own religious movement.

After 220, Tertullian's trace is lost. With a large degree of convention, the time of his death is determined precisely by this year.

“I believe because it is absurd”[ | ]

Main article: Credo quia absurdum

The famous maxim Credo quia absurdum est

(“I believe, because it is absurd,” that is, metaphysical in understanding) is a paraphrase of a fragment of Tertullian’s work “On the Flesh of Christ” (Latin: De Carne Christi), where in a polemic with the Gnostic Marcion he writes:
Et mortuus est Dei Filius: prorsus credibile est quia ineptum est.
Et sepultus resurrexit: certum est, quia impossibile.[14] Which in different translations appears as follows:

• And the Son of God died: this is indisputable, because it is absurd. And, buried, he rose again: this is certain, because it is impossible.
• And the Son of God died; this is completely reliable, because it does not correspond to anything. And after burial he rose again; this is certain, because it is impossible.

According to Tertullian, philosophy should limit itself to the explanatory function, abandoning the research function. Tertullian rejected the possibility of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture, considering disputes about the hidden meaning of the biblical text to be fruitless speculation, “upsetting the stomach” (De pr. 15) and often leading to heresy. He gave preference to literal interpretation, even if it went against the basic requirements of logic. If something exceeds the ability of our understanding, then this, according to Tertullian, does not mean that it in itself is absurd. Rather, on the contrary, if a certain provision of Scripture seems absurd to us, this indicates that it contains a mystery that deserves the more faith, the less trivial it is. According to Tertullian’s worldview credo, one should believe what, from the point of view of ancient wisdom, is counterintuitive, and perhaps only this should be believed (credo quia ineptum). Corresponding to this position, the maxim “Credo quia absurdum est” (“I believe because it is absurd”) inspired theologians who defended the concept of pure faith, opposing the claims of rational theology.[15]

Creative heritage

Tertullian left behind a large number of works.

Some of them, such as: Apologetic, To the Gentiles, To Scapula, Against the Jews, etc., have an apologetic orientation.

Others - Against Marcion in five books, Against Hermogenes, Against Praxeus, On baptism, On the testimony of the soul, On prescription [against] heretics, Against Valentinian - dogmatic-polemical.

The third group of his works, moral-asthetic, includes: On repentance, On prayer, On chastity, On patience, Message to his wife, Message to the martyrs, On the attire of women, etc.

Proceedings[ | ]

Tertullian had an excellent knowledge of the Holy Scriptures and Greek authors. Thirty-one works of Tertullian have reached us; all of his works are devoted to topics of practical importance: the attitude of Christians to paganism, issues of Christian morality and the refutation of heresies. 14 works known by title have not survived.

Initially, Tertullian was engaged in apologetics, writing “Apologeticus” and “Ad nationes” in 197 and developed an ex of Christian morality in the treatises “On Spectaculis”, “On idolatry" ("De idololatria"), "On female attire" ("De cultu feminarum") and "To the wife" ("Ad uxorem"), instructing catechumens in the treatises "On baptism" ("De baptismo"), "On prayer” (“De oratione”) and “On repentance” (“De poenitentia”), explaining in the treatise “On the challenge of the objections of heretics” (“De praescriptionem haereticorum”) why one should not listen to their teachings. The author of Tertullian’s biography, Blessed Jerome, therefore called him “ardens vir” - “frantic man.”

Apologetic[ | ]

• Apologeticus pro Christianis (English)Russian..
• Libri duo ad Nationses.
• De testimonio animae.
• Ad Martyres.
• De Spectaculis (English)Russian..
• De Idololatria.
• Accedit ad Scapulam liber.

Dogmatic[ | ]

• De Oratione.
• De Baptismo.
• De Poenitentia.
• De Patientia.
• Ad Uxorem libri duo.
• De Cultu Feminarum lib. II.

Polemical[ | ]

• De Praescriptionibus adversus Haereticos.
• De Corona Militis.
• De Fuga in Persecutione.
• Adversus Gnosticos Scorpiace.
• Adversus Praxeam.
• Adversus Hermogenem.
• Adversus Marcionem libri V.
• Adversus Valentinianos (English)Russian..
• Adversus Judaeos.
• De Anima.
• De Carne Christi (English)Russian..
• De Resurrectione Carnis.

About morality[ | ]

• De velandis Virginibus.
• De Exhortatione Castitatis.
• De Monogamia.
• De Jejuniis.
• De Pudicitia.
• De Pallio.

Fake works[ | ]

In the past, many works have been attributed to Tertullian that have been found to almost certainly have been written by others. However, since their actual authors remain unknown, they continue to be published in collections of Tertullian's works.

• “Against Heresies” Adversus (lat. Omnes Haereses) - possibly Quiz of Petavsky;
• “On the executions of the gods of the pagans” (lat. De execrandis gentium diis);
• “Poem against Marcion” (lat. Carmen adversus Marcionem);
• “Poem against John the Prophet” (Latin: Carmen de Iona Propheta) - possibly by Cyprian of Gaul;
• “The Poem of Sodom” (lat. Carmen de Sodoma) - possibly by Cyprian of Gaul;
• “Poem of Genesis” (Latin: Carmen de Genesi);
• “Poem about the Judgment of the Lord” (lat. Carmen de Judicio Domini).

It was long believed that Tertullian edited the famous work “The Passion of Saints Perpetua, Felicitatis and those who suffered with them” (Latin: Passio SS. Perpetuae et Felicitatis), much of which is the personal diary of Saint Perpetua. Today this point of view is recognized as erroneous, and the work is published separately from the works of Tertullian.

Literature[ | ]

In Russian

• Tertullian / Averintsev S. S. // Television tower - Ulaanbaatar [Electronic resource]. - 2021. - pp. 94-95. - (Big Russian Encyclopedia: [in 35 volumes] / chief editor Yu. S. Osipov; 2004-2017, vol. 32). — ISBN 978-5-85270-369-9.
• Albrecht M. von.
  History of Roman Literature (German). - Moscow, 2005. - Bd. 3. - S. 1663-1690.
• Mazurin K. M.
  Tertullian and his creations. - Moscow, 1892. - 356 p.
• Meyendorff I. F.
  Theological teaching of Tertullian
• Neretina S.S.
  Tertullian: Athens or Jerusalem?
• Popov K.
  Tertullian, his theory of Christian knowledge and the main principles of his theology. - Kyiv, 1880.
• Preobrazhensky P.F.
  Tertullian and Rome. - Moscow: Editorial URSS, 2004. - 240 p. — ISBN 5-354-00911-1.
• Radlov E.L.
  Tertullian // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907.
• Saltykov A., prot.
  Tertullian on art and the church artists of his time Archived copy of March 4, 2021 on the Wayback Machine
• Tertullian / A. A. Stolyarov // New philosophical encyclopedia: in 4 volumes / prev. scientific-ed. Council V. S. Stepin. — 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Mysl, 2010. - 2816 p.
• Shternov N.V.
  Tertullian, presbyter of Carthage. Essay on his scientific and literary activities. - Kursk, 1889. - 414 p.
• Shcheglov N. N.
  Apologetician of Tertullian. Bibliographic research. - Kyiv, 1888. - 216 p.

In English

• Timothy Barnes.
  Tertullian: A literary and historical study. — Reprinted with appendix of revisions 1985. — Oxford: Oxford, 1971. — ISBN 978-0198143628.
• Bitel, Lisa M. Bitel & Lifshitz, Felice.
  Gender and Christianity in medieval Europe: new perspectives. - Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. - ISBN 9780812240696.
• Daniel, Robin.
  This Holy Seed: Faith, Hope and Love in the Early Churches of North Africa. - Chester: Tamarisk Publications, 2010. - ISBN 978-0-9538565-3-4.
• Andrew J., Ekonomou.
  Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern influences on Rome and the papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, AD 590–752. - Lexington Books, 2007. - ISBN 978-0739133866.
• LeRoy, Froom.
  The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers. - Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1950. - Vol. 1.
• Schaff, Philip.
  The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.

Ames, Cecilia.

Roman Religion in the Vision of Tertullian. // Companion to Roman Religion / ed. Jörg Rüpke. — Oxford: Blackwell. — P. 457–471.

• Dunn, Geoffrey D.
  Tertullian. — New York: Routledge, 2004.
• Gero, Stephen.
  Miles gloriosus: The Christians and Military Service according to Tertullian. // Church History. - New York: Routledge, 1970. - P. 285–298.