APOLOGETICS
APOLOGETICS, a branch of theology devoted to the rational defense of the truth of Christian doctrine. The Greek word apologia (defense) originally referred to the speech of the defense attorney in court in response to the speech of the accuser. Therefore, the term “apologists” was assigned to Christian writers of the 2nd–3rd centuries, who, in their “apologies” addressed to the Roman emperors or the enlightened public, tried to defend the correctness of Christianity. These include Aristides, Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras, Minucius Felix and Tertullian. Later apologies were created during the period of persecution of Christianity. Thus, Augustine wrote a treatise on the City of God (413–426) in response to accusations addressed to Christians that the misfortunes that befell Rome were caused by the rejection of faith in pagan gods, and Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa against the pagans in order to protect Christian teaching from Aristotelian logic , tending towards materialistic pantheism. In the era when Christianity became the state religion, there was no particular need for Christian apologetics, so over time this word began to mean not the defense of the Christian faith from attacks by non-Christian thinkers, but the defense of orthodoxy from rival interpretations of this faith within Christianity itself. This is the Apology of the Augsburg Confession (1531) by F. Melanchthon (1497–1560) and the writings of Cardinal Bellarmino (1542–1621), directed against Protestant “heretics.”
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THEOLOGY
In the 18th century, which undermined the foundations of the Christian worldview, an urgent need arose to protect the Christian faith from the latest rationalism, and from that moment more and more apologetic works began to appear. Among them, the Analogy of Religion (1736) by Bishop J. Butler and Testimonies for the Truth of Christianity (1794) by Archdeacon W. Paley were especially influential. In the 19th–20th centuries. the stream of apologetic writings did not dry out. The purpose of these writings is to show that the Christian faith not only does not contradict the statements of modern science and philosophy, but that, on the contrary, the progress of modern thought directly depends on Christian insights. Most of the latest theological writings are essentially apologetic in nature, since modern theologians have to constantly reconcile the Christian faith with the data of science, psychology, sociology and philosophy. However, the school of theologians founded by C. Barth believes that apologetics is not the true goal of theology and that faith is secured and propagated by preaching, and not by rational arguments. Most theologians do not share this point of view, but are inclined to admit that no amount of intellectual argumentation can prove the truth of Christian teaching or lead non-believers to faith.
Philosophical Encyclopedia - Apologetics
(from the Greek apologeomai to defend, justify) philosophical and theological polemical science, which has as its subject the defense of the provisions of Christian teaching against the hostile provisions of other religions, heresies, philosophy, etc. As a polemical science, A. is highly dependent on the views it refutes, and therefore: 1) has different tasks and goals in different historical eras;
2) is forced to undertake a positive study of hostile teachings, borrowing much from their language and way of thinking. Therefore, it was through A. that Christian doctrine received numerous influences, and it was this science that first carried out the synthesis of philosophy and Christianity, thereby creating the conditions for independent Christian philosophizing and the language for its expression. All this makes A. the most important branch of Christian philosophy. Early Christian architecture arose already in the twenties of the 2nd century. and is usually chronologically placed in second place in ancient Christian literature after the so-called. “The Writings of the Apostolic Men” (Clement of Rome, Ignatius the God-Bearer, Hermas, “Didahe”, etc.). The most ancient apologists include: 1) the unknown author of the letter to Diognetus; 2) Aristides, the author of the earliest apology that has come down to us; 3) Justin the Philosopher (Martyr), the author of two apologies addressed to the pagans, and the “Dialogue with Tryphon the Jew,” written in refutation of Judaism; 4) a disciple of St. Justin Tatian the Syrian (Assyrian), author of the rigoristic “Speech against the Hellenes”; 5) Athenagoras of Athens, who wrote the “Petition for Christians” addressed to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus; 6) Fiophilus, sixth bishop of the Antiochian Church (according to Eusebius), author of “Three Books of Autolycus.” The most famous Latin apologists also include Minucius Felix, who composed the brilliant dialogue “Octavius” (revealing the influence of Cicero and Seneca) and Tertullian, the author of numerous works (including the apologetic “To the Pagans” and “On the Witness of the Soul”). Early Christian religion was directed both against the Jews, convincing them of the truth of faith in Christ the Messiah, and against the pagans. It pursued two main goals: 1) to refute the largely absurd accusations brought against Christians; 2) develop a new philosophical language, equally understandable to both an educated pagan and a Christian
Athenagoras of Athens names three main accusations brought by pagans against Christianity: atheism, eating human flesh (apparently, the source of the latter was the misunderstood Sacrament of the Eucharist of Communion), “vile Oedipal incest.” Minucius Felix also adds to them the veneration of the head of an ass and the veneration of the genitals of the presbyter. Refuting these and similar accusations of superstition, Christians wanted to achieve permission for their religion in the Empire, along with Judaism tolerated by the Romans (the so-called “permitted religion” religio licita). Apologists also assert the superiority of Christianity over any pagan teaching, and one of the main arguments they give is the argument of the antiquity of the Holy Scriptures.
When solving the second problem, apologists consider philosophical topics themselves. Moreover, depending on the resolution of this problem, they are clearly divided into two movements: 1) the direction coming from Justin Martyr and including the majority of apologetic works, which seeks contacts with pagan culture and recognizes philosophy and Christianity as essentially related; 2) the direction of Tatian and Tertullian, who believed that between Revelation and philosophy, “Athens and Jerusalem, the Academy and the Church” lies an insurmountable gap, due to the presence of which philosophy is the “mother of all heresies” and should be, in its pagan form, completely rejected. It is in this context that one should understand Tertullian’s famous saying, usually given in the paraphrase “I believe because it is absurd.” It would be an extreme anachronism to assert, as is often done, that this phrase contains a solution to the problem of the relationship between faith and reason as two cognitive abilities of the soul. Tertullian is talking more about purely sociocultural issues, the question of the relationship between Christianity and paganism. That is: “I believe (as a Christian), because it is absurd (for a pagan).” However, the works of Tertullian, and especially Tatian (whose rigorism was only capable of irritating the pagans, but did not in any way contribute to their conviction) cannot be considered accepted by the Christian church. The rigorism of these authors led them to heresy: Tertullian, as is known, at one time belonged to the Montanists, and then became a heresiarch, founding the “Tertullianite” sect, while Tatian went over to the Aquarians, who took communion not with wine, but with water.
The direction, the foundations of which were laid in the Apologies of St. Justin, was more tolerant. In order to substantiate the identity of philosophy and Christianity, Justin, using the Stoic teaching about the seed logos (logos spermatikos), divides: 1) the spoken logos as the cosmos-creating Divine Word; 2) seed logos (the mind of the human race, which has as its source the first form of logos); 3) incarnate logos (Christ). Thus, there can be no contradiction between the pagan philosopher, using the mind of the seed logos, and the Christian, worshiping the same Word in His incarnate form. Even, according to St. According to Justin, philosophers were a kind of “Christians before Christ.” Christianity is a true philosophy, superior to paganism, since “those writers, through the innate seed of the Word, could see the truth, but in darkness.”
Such a solution to the sociocultural problem raises a metaphysical question in early A.: where was the Son when there was no world? Or if God needs the Logos for the creation of the world, then either the Word is not co-eternal with God the Father, or the world is eternal in God? Apologists resolve this problem in different ways: Tertullian claims that “there was a time when there was no Son,” Theophilus of Antioch, who first used the term “Trinity” (Trias) in Christian literature, distinguishes the Word hidden in the bowels of the Father before the creation of the world (t n. logos endiathetos), and the spoken Word (logos prophorikos).
The traditions of the early apologists were continued in the Alexandrian theological school (III century). Both Clement of Alexandria (in the first work of his famous trilogy “Protrepik”) and Origen, the author of the most influential theological system of the 3rd century, were engaged in arithmetic. (in the essay “Against Celsus”). The Alexandrian school, following Justin, combines Christianity and philosophy. So, according to St. According to Clement, philosophy was a kind of Revelation of God that prepared the pagans for Christianity in the same way as Judaism prepared the Jewish people for it. The problematic of logos continues to excite A. and is largely responsible for the emergence of Origen’s system. The latter (in his work “On Principles”), acutely feeling the need to affirm the eternity of the divine Word of Christ (without which true “deification” of man is impossible), postulates the eternity of the world, eternally created by the ever-existing Logos. Namely, before the emergence of this world (“zone”), other worlds existed, just as after its death they will begin to arise again, being a place of imprisonment for souls who fell away from God and realized their absolute freedom (see “Pelagianism”). Thus, the world is eternal, since God the Word is eternal.
In the 4th century. Christianity has strengthened its position so much that apologies take the form of an explanation of Christian teaching. Christians are now essentially concerned with using pagan philosophy for their own purposes (a desire expressed in the medieval formula “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology”). Therefore, the problems associated with the cosmological concept of logos faded into the background, being supplanted by Christology. However, as such, A. does not cease to exist. It is also present in the Cappodacian church fathers (IV century) Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian and Gregory of Nyssa, as well as in Bl. Augustine (5th century: for example, his “Six Questions against the Pagans”). Church historian of the 4th century. Eusebius of Caesarea compiled a textbook of the works of apologists of the first centuries.
In modern and modern times, there is a revival of A. Nietzsche’s proclaimed “Death of God” was a statement of the fact of the emergence of secular culture. Therefore, in Christian thought, the question of the relationship between culture and cult, philosophy and Revelation, often taking on an apologetic character, is beginning to become especially acutely debated. The apology of modern times contrasts Christianity with modern science, using (especially in Protestantism) a completely scientific method (Frank, Planck, Ullmann, etc.), and since the 19th century. opposes materialism (Richl, Harnack, in Russia Yurkevich), Darwinism and other theories.
In Russia, the revival of art was largely associated with the traditional Russian problem of “The People and the Intelligentsia.” In addition to purely church writers (Arch. Augustine, Kudryavtsev-Platonov, Archpriest Svetlov, etc.), many philosophers (especially “sophiologists” and generally philosophers of unity) can also be classified as apologists. So, for example, in V.S. Solovyov, a significant role is played by the methods characteristic of Christian philosophy. In order to substantiate the unity of Christianity and rationalist philosophy, Solovyov (in “Readings on God-Humanity”) directly uses the division of the Divine Word proposed by St. Justin. Thus, philosophy (or the West, science, intelligentsia) is one with Christianity (East, religion, people). Using the concept of Logos in such an archaic, narrow cosmological meaning poses the same problems for the thinker as it did for the early apologists. And Solovyov perpetuates the world, but no longer in the form of the cycle of worlds of Origen (condemned by the V Ecumenical Council), but in the form of the “world-in-God,” the Divine Sophia as a set of eternal ideas-prototypes of the created world.
In Russian philosophy of the 20th century. follows about Rev. V.V. Zenkovsky (Paris, 1957), interpreting Christian teaching in its relation to modern scientific theories (doctrines about the origin of the Universe, Darwinism, physiology, psychology, paleontology, social teachings, the theory of “churchless Christianity”, etc.).
M. B. Khomyakov
Christian apologetics and understanding of its different types
Christian apologetics for defense of the faith
- History and archeology
- How We Got the Bible (including answers to forms of criticism, etc.)
- The science
- Contradictions in the Bible
- Defense of Christian theology (suffering, hell, cruelty in the Old Testament, etc.)
Christian Apologetics for Faith Building
- World view
- Prophecies
- Miracles / Resurrection
- Statements of Jesus Christ
List of apologetic authors, Bernard Ramm:
- Apologists who emphasize personal experience and grace as the basis of faith. (Pascal, Søren Óbut Kierkegaard (Kirkegaard), Rudolf Karl Bultmann, Karl Barth, Paul Johannes Tillich)
- Apologists who emphasize natural theology as the basis of faith. (Thomas Aquinas, Tenatus, William Lane Craig)
- Apologists who emphasize the inspiration of the Bible as the basis of faith. (Augustine, C.S. Lewis, Josh McDowell)
Classification of professional Christian apologists
Classic Christian apologetics
(William Lane Craig, Thomas Aquinas, Sproul, Norman Geisler, Stefan T. Davis, Richard Swinburne)
Let's start with theistic evidence. Logically we must establish the existence of God. We use classical Aristotelian arguments. After this we must show that the Christian God is that God. It is only much later that we have to worry about Biblical inspiration and the like.
- Ontological, cosmological, theological and other rational arguments in favor of God.
- “Miracles cannot prove God. Only God can prove miracles."
- The resurrection makes no sense until we have established the existence of God.
- Who would benefit most from this kind of evidence? I don't know. An atheist? Pantheist?
Reliable, or Cumulative (cumulative) case
(Gary Robert Habermas, Clark, Kick, Strobel, Josh McDowell, C.S. Lewis, Justin Martyr, Jerome)
Cumulative proof of the inspiration of the Bible. Downplaying the importance of classical apologetics as having almost no practical value for the average person. Emphasizes prophecy, historical facts, arguments about miracles and especially the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Credibility. One step approach. For example: miracles can prove God, while the classics say we must prove the existence of God in order to talk about the reality of miracles. Eclecticism.
Mainly historical and inductive evidence (such as prophecy, miracles, logical arguments for the resurrection, etc.) Natural theology is only a small part of this method and is not fundamental.
Cumulative case. Does not rely on induction, but more on a variation of standard argument. For example Lee Strobel. Its reliability is the most reasonable conclusion. Christian theologians insist that Christianity is better than other points of view in explaining all available facts and evidence, whether it is a theistic (theological) or an atheistic view.
- So what type of people would benefit from these arguments?
- Answer: someone who has at least basic knowledge of theology.
Initial premise
Begins with the assertion/premise that the foundations of Christian theology are the starting points of apologetics. Other viewpoints are a filter that eliminates rational evidence for Christian theism. Seeks to show that this is the only paradigm that correlates with reality. The only rational way of thinking is Christian theism. We must imagine the God of the Bible not simply as the conclusion or conclusion to reasoning, but as the one who makes reasoning and conclusions possible in the first place. Worldview apologetics. Even non-believers construct arguments that make sense without relying on God. Any other worldview is unable to explain evil, morality, the nature of physical reality, etc.
- Revelations in the original premise. Belief in the triune God found in Scripture is the only way to explain the world. Cornelius Van Til, John Frame.
- Rationalism in its original premise. Uses the law of non-contradiction. The entire worldview is built on the evidence of one thing to another. (Ronald Rush, Gordon Clark)
- Systematic constancy, consistency in the original premise. Can explain all the facts and satisfy all needs. Practicality in the original premise. Francis Schaeffer.
- Christianity as the only vital system of faith and worldview. Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, Francis Schaeffer, Dr. Bob Kurka.
Epistemological reforms
Arguments are mainly from personal experience. The opposite of “credibility” apologetics. The epistemological assumptions of the classical and reliable position are under attack. It is “rational” to believe something without hard facts.
Calvinists tend to take this view because they believe that faith is entirely a gift and choice of God and is independent of our motivation and our efforts.
- Their main impulse is to defend the faith that has already been given to the believer. And they will not use facts and evidence in evangelism. Kelly James Clark, Alvin Plantinga.
- Note that William Lane Craig and even Douglas Jacobi listed the validity of Christian experience as "evidence" in the last debate.
- Who will this help? My opinion: more people. Most believe in subjective rather than rational (not irrational) arguments.
Fideism
This is not really apologetics. A fideist will say that using apologetics degrades (discredits) God. Faith that needs reliable facts is not faith. Faith is surrender and acceptance. Facts do not support, but rather misinterpret, faith.
Some will say that this is the same as Presappositionalism, but it is not. (*Prespositionalism is a direction in apologetics that claims that the initial premise is God and Holy Scripture, see above)
Christian Apologetics and Its Uses: The Book of Acts and Church History
The Book of Acts is not just a collection of true and good, inspiring stories. These are records of a movement that ultimately completely, absolutely, completely, forever changed the world. It’s even difficult for us to imagine how much they changed the future of humanity, its history and eternity.
The Roman Empire was a mixture of ancient polytheism, indigenous gods, Greek philosophy (Pythagoras, Epicurus, Stoics, Neoplatonists), Gnosticism, Egyptians, the mystic religion of the Persians, and the dualistic religion of the Persians. Logically, it was absolutely impossible that a Jewish movement, led mainly by poor, uneducated people from a relatively insignificant province of the Roman Empire with concepts diametrically opposed to the worldview of the Romans and Greeks, whose leader was executed at a young age, who left no records and did not leave his place born more than 100 miles away, who didn't even speak Greek, who did what none of the barbarians could do - he conquered Rome.
Acts 1:8 A terrifying vision?
However, this is what they lived by. This is what we need today. Our world is going crazy, out of control. We are very quickly sliding into a mixture of the New Age movement and Hinduism, Buddhism, Hollywood Buddhist philosophy and atheistic materialism. And also into multicultural postmodernism, religious Islamic radicalism, Catholic ritualism, Calvinist-evangelical graceism (enrichment theology) and nihilistic libertinism. Morality is literally disappearing before our eyes. The only hope for this world is that we change it again.
And we need a new revolution like the one described in the book of Acts. Logically, we cannot do this, but they did it against all odds.
Acts 5:33-39 They were from God and no one could stop them! This is still true today.
Why did the church change this world from the first to the third centuries? If we are from God, then nothing and no one will be able to stop us. What can we learn from this and apply to ourselves?
The first reason is Jesus Christ. Those who knew Jesus of Nazareth personally and those who were directly influenced by these witnesses were extremely driven and had deep personal convictions. This was the movement of Jesus Christ. What can we learn here?
The second reason is legitimate truth claims. In addition to legitimate statements of truth were the fulfillment of prophecies, miracles, and the resurrection. The movement was based on powerful statements of truth, which were supported by reliable facts that made sense. What can we learn here?
As the urgency of events began to fade, things began to seem less urgent and these reasons (1 and 2) began to fade away. (*Jesus passed away and the apostles, one after another, and their closest disciples also passed away: some were killed, and some died a natural death), their influence also began to decrease, why did the church continue its exponential growth? These two points were not enough to conquer the pagan and Greek world with their religion and philosophy.
The third reason is ethical/moral behavior. Thus, the inevitable influence of the moral and ethical superiority of the adherents of this growing Christian movement is obvious.
The fourth reason is the answer to a difficult question. (Worldly view, intellectual superiority). Because of Origen, Christian theology was seen as being alongside Stoicism and Neoplatonism in those days, but offering something more to the common man than them. Christianity was much better than other points of view in providing answers to the questions that thinking people asked.
The fifth reason is purpose and dignity. Established as a movement with intellectual credentials, the church offered meaning, purpose, and dignity to the poor and the rich, and to the intellectual and the uneducated alike. Perhaps the most significant thing that Christianity provided was the same meaning, the same heritage, for both men and women, something that mystical religions and “true philosophies” did not even come close to providing. Many of the influential members of the church in the first three centuries were women, and this is no coincidence.
