The Pope is currently a very significant figure on the world stage. Of course, the modern head of the Catholic Church is far from the power that the medieval Catholic Church had, but the status of the pope is still very great. He is the main Catholic pontiff and the head of the Holy See, so the struggle for the post of Pope, who is elected after the death or resignation of the previous pope, flares up seriously.
The first supreme Roman pontiffs appeared during the Roman Empire, so the Pope can be considered one of the most ancient political figures in the world.
The emergence of the first Roman bishops
The first Christian preachers and bishops who appeared on the territory of the Roman Empire were constantly persecuted. Despite this, the role of the Pope became more and more significant with each century on the political map of Europe.
Having overcome paganism and established the Catholic faith in the territory of medieval Europe, the Catholic Church, through various reforms, was able to become so rich that European kings constantly asked it to borrow money. Due to this, the Catholic Church constantly “knocked out” various benefits for itself, which earned it considerable hatred from some representatives of noble families.
As for the first bishops who founded Christian communities among Roman slaves, there is negligible reliable information about them. The archives of the Catholic Church contain ancient manuscripts that testify to the high priests of Christians. These papers date back to the 1st-2nd centuries.
The first Roman bishop was Saint Peter himself, who shared the honor of founding the Roman Church with the Apostle Paul. Paul was most likely a citizen of the Roman Empire; he arrived in the Eternal City in 61. Peter came to Rome from the Roman province of Antioch, where he preached Christian teaching to his flock. It is certain that Peter appeared in Rome after Paul, where they met and suffered martyrdom.
It is with the actions of Saint Peter that the legend is connected about how, fleeing from Rome, he met Jesus Christ, who was going to again suffer martyrdom for Peter. It is most likely that the two apostles died at the hands of the Roman Emperor Nero in 64, although this is not known for sure.
Persecution of the first Roman bishops
According to the decrees and orders of the Roman emperors, Christians were persecuted for a long time. The first three centuries after the birth of Christ left practically no information about the Roman bishops, with the exception of their names. Almost all of the first bishops suffered martyrdom, which is currently known from legends that were later reflected in the “Book of High Priests.” It is believed that the first three centuries from the Nativity of Christ are the time of the first apostles, martyrs and persecution of Christianity.
Some Roman emperors were quite loyal to Christians, so they simply sent bishops into exile or isolated them from participation in social and public activities. It was due to the persecution and persecution of the first Christian bishops that this religion spread throughout Europe.
The history of the first popes
The institution of the papacy appeared at the beginning of the 5th century, although the prerequisites for its appearance were already at the end of the 4th century. The institution of the papacy was formed in Rome, since it was there that the Christian community had lands that legally belonged to it by that time. The Roman episcopate was created, which was soon destined to become the center of Catholic power in Europe. After some time, Roman bishops began to officially bear the title of pope. In the 6th century, the Catholic Church was already a fairly influential organization.
The Franks played the main role in completing the papal throne. It was their king Pepin the Short who granted the entire Roman province to the episcopate. Thus, the city of Rome became the Papal States, and the Pope was not only the highest church nobility, but also a sovereign ruler. The Franks, who massively adopted Christianity under King Clovis in 496, provided all possible support to the Catholic Church, so the status of the pope under King Pepin the Short was very high.
The official title "Dad" appeared as follows:
- Even in ancient Rome, when Christian teaching was just emerging, all priests who had the right to bless their parishioners were called popes;
- After the Roman Emperor Constantine issued a law on freedom of religion in 313, and Christianity gradually began to receive the status of the official Roman religion, only bishops began to bear the title “pope”;
- When the Christian Church split into the Roman Catholic and Constantinople Orthodox, the papal rank began to be assigned only to Roman or Alexandrian bishops.
Before the Great Schism of the Christian Church occurred in 1054, the Pope was elected in Rome. All the secular and spiritual authorities who could reach Rome at the appointed time gathered and chose a new pope. In 1059, the Lutheran Council decided to put an end to this practice, and the election of the pope was now to take place at a conclave of cardinals, who were the first bishops of the Catholic Church.
The elected Pope had to publicly announce under what name he would represent the interests of the Catholic Church. If throughout the history of the papacy there have already been popes with such names, then a serial number is added to the name. After this, the Pope officially receives the throne name, by which he will be known throughout his reign.
The election of the Pope very rarely went smoothly. Since the early Middle Ages, the papal throne has constantly become hostage to the political ambitions of European secular rulers. The Catholic Church was constantly used in the struggle for socio-political influence in Europe, and many medieval monarchs acted quite harshly, especially during the early Middle Ages.
Closer to the period of the High Middle Ages, the struggle between spiritual and secular power intensified. Taking advantage of the fact that the Christian Church had fallen into decline due to the constant Viking raids that occurred between 793 and 1000, the German kings Otton began to place their puppets on the papal throne.
The peak of the confrontation between spiritual and temporal power occurred during the papacy of Gregory VII. Gregory publicly stated that the power of the Pope was stronger than the royal and imperial ones. This statement did not please the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, who ordered the Pope to be removed from office. In turn, Pope Gregory VII excommunicated the emperor and all his people from the church, which caused a storm of indignation among the emperor.
Henry IV, contrary to the orders of the pope, went to war against him, but lost. Abandoned by his comrades and deprived of troops, the emperor was forced to go beg for forgiveness from the pope. Gregory VII forgave the emperor, but already in 1084 Henry managed to capture Rome and force Pope Gregory to flee. Thus, the largest confrontation in history between the church and secular authorities ended in victory for the latter. Despite this, the power of the Catholic Church grew, and already in the 13th century no one in Europe doubted that the pope was more powerful than any European monarch.
The emergence of the Catholic Church and papal authority
AND CANON LAW
CATHOLIC CHURCH
(Edict of Milan) in the winter of 312 to 313
and the new faith after 325 becomes the state faith. Through a series of laws, he exempts clergy from personal duties and taxes, allows various contributions to the church, and grants clergy the right to draw up wills. The Church began to enjoy independence, but under the control of the emperors. The clergy subsisted on the voluntary contributions of parishioners.
At the head of the Christian community was a bishop (literally “overseer”, “guardian”), chosen by the clergy and community of believers, and confirmed by other bishops of the province. In turn, the bishop elected priests and appointed clergy - the lowest church personnel.
The bishop, who stood at the head of the main city of the diocese and had power over other cities of the administrative district, began to be called an archbishop.
In civil-administrative language, the bishopric also received the name
metropolitan
and, therefore, the bishop of the metropolis - the main city of the diocese (the province in Greek was called the diocese headed by the eparch) or diocese.
The metropolitan is vested with the following rights: 1) monitoring the church order of the province and the timely filling of vacant episcopal sees in it and managing the affairs of the latter until their election; 2) convening local councils and presiding over them; 3) accepting complaints and denunciations against bishops and establishing procedures for their trial; 4) without his consent, subordinate bishops could not undertake anything important; 5) overview of the province; 6) announcement in one’s area of the monarch’s decrees on church affairs.
With the abolition of the power of the secular rulers of the exarchs for church affairs, the ecumenical councils approved for the oldest metropolitans of the diocese full ecclesiastical authority over all bishops and created a new highest level of hierarchy - the patriarchate.
At first it was only an honorary title, but since the third Council of Chalcedon in 451, this title was received by five hierarchs of the church, combining the rights of the highest church-governmental jurisdiction.
Councils, which established the dogmas of the church, began to be considered the highest church body. Initially only bishops participated in them, then abbots of monasteries.
In the 4th century. in the East, monasticism arises (from the Greek - “alone”, “lonely”, “to live alone”), which gradually builds its organization and develops statutes: in the East - the statute of Basil the Great, in the West - Benedict of Nursia.
Initially, all bishops were called “popes,” i.e., fathers, and until the end of the 5th century. this was considered only an honorary title for bishop. Gradually, the Roman archbishops appropriated this title to themselves, and from 1075 it began to apply exclusively to them. This happened because, according to established tradition, the Roman Church was founded by the apostles Peter and Paul; from this it was concluded that the teaching of Christ was preserved in complete purity only in Rome. Just as the Apostle Peter is the first among the apostles, the vicar of Christ on earth, so the pope should be the head of all bishops. Basing their state rights on the succession of power from the Apostle Peter, the popes began to call their possessions the legacy of Peter.
At the local council of 347, the Pope was granted significant rights: he received complaints from all churches, and he received the right to order a new investigation. The authority of the popes especially increased during the period of heresies. They become judges of dogmatic disputes; emperors and patriarchs turn to them. The rise of the popes was also facilitated by the geographical position of Rome, as a center between East and West. In the IV-VIII centuries. The papacy has provided many services to Rome and Italy, so it gains political influence. At the beginning of the 5th century. Pope Innocent I (402-417) first substantiated the religious authority of the Roman Church, declaring that the source of papal authority was the supremacy of the Apostle Peter. The first of the famous popes was Leo the Great (440-461), who became the unifier of the power and moral influence of the church. His successors developed the doctrine of the superiority of spiritual power over secular power. The popes began to call themselves “vicars of Jesus Christ” and therefore arrogated to themselves the right to “bind and decide” on earth, like God in heaven.
From the 5th century Clashes between popes and eastern bishops are intensifying, defending demands for recognition of their supremacy in religious disputes.
A major role in strengthening papism was played by the famous Gregory I the Great, who was on the papal throne in 590-604, and became the spokesman for all the aspirations of the papacy of that time; he was called "the servant of the servants of God" and "the consul of God." He strengthened the financial position and moral authority of the Roman bishop, raising his power high, becoming the protector of the population. The Pope elevated monasticism and made it an obedient instrument of the Holy See. In his hands, in addition to Rome, vast lands were concentrated - in Gaul, Dalmatia, Africa and Asia.
However, even in the 7th century. The popes continued to be strongly dependent on the Byzantine emperors: until 685 they confirmed the newly elected pope, and from 685 the emperor transferred this right to the exarch. In the fight against the Lombards, the popes were forced in 741 to turn for help to the mayor of the Salic kings, Charles Martell. In these types, Pope Zacharias I in 750 approved the intention of the son of Charles Martel - Pepin the Short - to become king of the Salic Franks, and Pope's successor Stephen II concluded an alliance treaty with him, which was of enormous importance for the fate of the papacy. Pepin the Short, together with his sons, in 754 bestowed upon the pope a charter approving secular power over Italy and the islands for the Roman Church, for which he was anointed by the pope and crowned together with his sons. In 756, the king transferred to the pope the keys to 22 cities of Italy, as well as the Ravenan exarchate, the Roman ducat and the Pentapolis. The "Papal States" appears. In order to justify his rule over it, at the same time, a letter appears about the “gift” of Constantine the Great, who allegedly granted the city of Rome and all Italian regions and Western countries to the Pope at his baptism.
The Pope became a secular sovereign, which caused extreme displeasure of the dukes and barons. The son of Pepin the Short came to the rescue - Charlemagne, who in 800 was crowned with the imperial crown for the service rendered to the pope. The consequence of this was a gap between east and west. As the “secular head of the Catholic world,” Charlemagne exalts the spiritual authority of the pope. A theory arises about “two swords” that “God sent to earth to protect Christianity: a spiritual sword for the pope, a secular sword for the emperor.” They must jointly establish the kingdom of God on earth.
However, not content with spiritual dominion, the popes began to strive to seize secular power, entering into struggle with the German emperors, Western European kings and bishops. For this purpose, they cleverly used the coronation rite, trying to promote the conviction that being crowned with the imperial crown is the privilege of the popes.
The idea of the superiority of spiritual power over secular power is gradually becoming dominant. A forged document, the so-called False Isidore Decretal
(compiled in Spain in the 7th century and attributed without evidence to Isidore of Seville) completely undermined the independence of the national churches. The purpose of the false decretal is to prove that already in the 1st century. the power of the popes stood above everything in the world, and that not only metropolitans and bishops, but even councils and emperors must submit to it. Through False Isidore's decretals, this pope managed to establish his supreme power over all the countries of Western Europe. The pope began to send his legates to all states to establish the clergy.
However, the power of popes over kings was not always successful; secular rulers resisted, and they even sometimes managed to prevail over the popes. For example, at the beginning of the 10th century. in eight years they raised and overthrew eight popes. Their immoral behavior also contributed to the decline of the popes' influence. Thus, John XII had an open harem, drank to the devil’s health, played dice, and performed church ordination ceremonies in the stable.
The papal throne becomes a toy in the hands of secular feudal lords, who entrust their children and relatives to it, as happened with Benedict IX, who became pope at the age of 12 and then sold his post profitably. There is even a legend that the papal throne was occupied by a woman under the name of John VIII.
The popes managed to rise from their humiliated position for a time thanks to an alliance with the German emperors Otto I, II and III (962-1002).
Having achieved great power in the west, the popes also lay claim to the eastern church. However, this could not be done, and in 1054 the eastern and western churches were divided (finally in the 13th century) into the eastern - Orthodox and western - Catholic. Moreover, each of them retained the name of Catholic
(worldwide) or in Latin Roman pronunciation, Catholic.
The difference between Catholicism and Orthodoxy lies in the introduction into the church organization, dogma and culture of innovations that are not accepted by the Orthodox Church (the addition to the “Creed” about the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from his son), as well as ideas purgatory, the doctrine of the “treasury of abundant grace,” which resulted in the recognition of indulgences
(“mercy”), i.e. forgiveness of sins.
For Catholic priests from the middle of the 13th century. Celibacy
(Latin for “unmarried”) is established Communion with wine and bread is only for clergy, and parishioners receive communion only with bread.
The rise of papal power was greatly facilitated by the strong development of monasticism. The papacy achieved great triumph under Innocent III (1198-1216), during which it realized its dreams of a world monarchy: all European sovereigns bowed before the papal throne. According to Innocent III, "the pope occupies the middle between God and man" and that just as the moon receives its luster from the sun, so royal power borrows its luster from the papal power. From the 13th century The popes became completely independent rulers of Rome.
It must be said that the cultural significance of the papacy in the Middle Ages was quite great. The papacy brought the peoples of Western Europe together into one huge whole, gave Europe a certain worldview, which was a great unifying force; it mentally and morally educated medieval society.
However, as papal autocracy increased, the Western Church also lost healthy elements. The power of the hierarchy spoiled the morals of the clergy. The peoples of Western Europe demand radical church reform. The Religious Reformation became a protest against the “corruption of the church” in “head and members.”
The term "reformation" comes from the Latin word reformatio
and is translated as “transformation”, “correction”. The Reformation is a form of struggle against the Catholic religion that spread in the 16th century. most Western European countries. Its ideologists argued that to save his soul a person does not need the mediation of the church, because this is achieved not by the external ritual manifestation of religiosity, but by the internal faith of each individual. Various segments of the population and classes took part in the reform movement, pursuing different goals, including political ones. As a result of the Reformation and religious wars, the Catholic Church lost its monopoly position in Western Europe. New Protestant churches arose in parts of Germany, Switzerland, England, etc.
Rights and duties of the Pope
The Pope is considered the monarch and sovereign of the Holy See. At its core, the Pope is the direct successor of the Apostle Peter. The power of the pope extends to all Catholics in the world and has no territorial significance. In addition, the head of the Holy See is at the same time the only head of the Vatican City State, where the residence and reception of the pope is located. The head of the Catholic Church bears the following titles:
- Bishop of Rome;
- Successor of Saint Peter;
- Vicar of Christ;
- Pontifex Maximus;
- Servant of God's servants;
- Primate of Italy;
- Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province;
- Supreme High Priest of the Universal Church.
Most of the above titles have a spiritual meaning, clearly denoting the role of the pope in the Catholic Church and Christendom.
If we take the role of the head of the Catholic Church in international law, then the pope is an independent entity endowed with spiritual and legal authority. The main responsibilities of the head of the Catholic Church are as follows:
- Maintain the Christian faith by personal example;
- Contribute to its dissemination and approval;
- Administration of the Catholic Church;
- Publish canons;
- Appoint priests to positions;
- Confer ecclesiastical ranks;
- To administer within the framework of the system of ecclesiastical government of the Catholic Church.
Catholics believe that any Pope is a direct spiritual descendant of the Apostle St. Peter, to whom Jesus Christ himself entrusted the reins of government and service to the Lord. Every Catholic has the right to the position of high priest, since theoretically this rank can be transferred to any person from among the Catholics who is worthy of it. In practice, only one of the bishops can become pope.
Francis (Pope)
Origin and education Francis, in the world Jorge Mario Bergoglio (Spanish Jorge Mario Bergoglio), was born on December 17, 1936 in Buenos Aires (Argentina) in the family of a railway worker, a native of Italy. He received a diploma in chemical engineering, then entered the Villa Devoto Seminary in Buenos Aires. In 1958 he joined the Jesuit monastic order. Novitiate (obedience) took place in Chile, where he studied the humanities. He continued his education in Argentina - at the College of St. Joseph in San Miguel (a suburb of Buenos Aires), where in 1963 he received a licentiate degree in philosophy, and in 1970 - a licentiate degree in theology. From priest to cardinal In 1960-1970. taught literature, philosophy and theology at Catholic colleges in Buenos Aires. On December 13, 1969 he was ordained to the priesthood. In 1970-1980 He held various positions in the Jesuit order in Argentina, and lived for some time in Spain, Great Britain and Germany. Returning to Argentina, he served in the Archdiocese of Cordoba. In 1980-1986 was rector of the theological faculty at the College of St. Joseph in San Miguel and rector of the parish of the Patriarch of St. Joseph in the diocese of San Miguel. In 1992-1997 was auxiliary bishop of Buenos Aires. In 1997-1998 - coadjutor (bishop with the right of succession to the diocese) of the Archbishop of Buenos Aires. From February 1998 to March 13, 2013 - Archbishop of Buenos Aires and Ordinary of Eastern Rite Catholics in Argentina. On February 21, 2001, Pope John Paul II elevated him to cardinal priesthood with the title of Church of St. Robert of Bellarmino. As a cardinal, he was appointed to several administrative posts in the Roman Curia: he was a member of the Congregation for the Clergy, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, and was also a member of the Commission for Latin America and the Council for the Family. In 2005-2008 headed the Bishops' Conference of Argentina. The Pope was elected on March 13, 2013 as the 266th head of the Roman Catholic Church (elected on the second day of the conclave during the fifth vote). The first thing Francis said to the cardinals who elected him was: “I hope God will forgive you for what you have just done.” He became history's first Latin American pope, the first Jesuit to hold office and the first pontiff to take his name from St. Francis of Assisi, the founder of the Franciscan mendicant order known for its asceticism and desire to communicate with his flock. Having become the head of the Roman Catholic Church and the Vatican State, he approved amendments to the Criminal and Criminal Procedure Codes and the General Rules on Administrative Sanctions of the Papal State, radically transforming the basis of the legislation of the Holy See (for the first time since 1929); decided to simplify the procedure for church divorce; announced the possibility of revising the method of calculating the date of Easter, so that all Christians would celebrate the Feast of the Resurrection of Christ on the same day. On February 12, 2021, he met (in Cuba) with Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Rus'. This was the first meeting of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox and Catholic churches in almost a thousand years after the church schism (1054). The Pope is ready to show mercy to people “lost” for the church - supporters of same-sex marriage, abortion and divorce. However, in the internal affairs of the Holy See, he showed himself to be a tough leader. From the very beginning of his pontificate, he began working to achieve maximum transparency in the Vatican departments involved in real estate and finance - for this purpose, audits and consultations are carried out with the involvement of international companies KPMG, Ernst & Young, McKinsey & Company. The motto of his pontificate was “a poor church for poor people.” The disadvantaged, the unfortunate, the sick, and the suffering became the main characters of his prayers and sermons. He calls on the rich to sacrifice more to the poor, and on world leaders to more actively fight poverty and inequality in their countries, to provide citizens with jobs, education and medical care, and speaks out against “wild capitalism,” calling it “the new tyranny.” He is distinguished by personal modesty and simplicity. When he was a cardinal, he lived in a small apartment, traveled by public transport and cooked his own food. Having become a pope, he refused apartments, preferring to live in the House of St. Martha - a hotel for bishops coming to the Vatican. He does not use luxury items - instead of a gold cross and a fisherman’s ring (a symbol of papal power), he left his old monastic cross and ordered a silver ring. A photograph of the pope's worn-out shoes instead of the symbolic red shoes spread throughout the world's media. In December 2013, the American magazine Time named Francis “person of the year,” noting that this title was awarded to him “for his modesty and involvement in all important global issues and discussions.” Laureate of the Charlemagne International Prize (2016). Speaks several languages. In addition to his native Spanish, he knows Italian, German, French, English, Portuguese, Latin and Ancient Greek. However, due to lack of practice recently, he speaks almost only Italian. He names “The Betrothed” by Alessandro Manzoni and “The Divine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri as his favorite books. He supports the Argentine club San Lorenzo. Back in 2013, Francis explained to papal press pool journalists that his predecessor Benedict XVI (Joseph Ratzinger, pope from 2005-2013, who abdicated the pontificate) with his abdication “opened the door” to a new, modern approach to succession. Francis himself does not hide his readiness to repeat this gesture. There are objective prerequisites for this: the current head of the Roman Catholic Church has been living with one lung for many years. Having begun long-term reforms in the church, he cannot help but think about a successor and seeks to increase the number of his proteges at a potential conclave. Otherwise, as observers predict, the “Francis revolution” may remain in the history of the church only as a striking episode.
The most famous personalities in the history of the papacy
The history of the development of the Catholic Church is connected not only with Christian spiritual life, but also with a number of political events that took place in Europe after the fall of the rule of Rome. Over the centuries, the Catholic Church strengthened its power, and some rich monasteries often became real oppressors for the common people.
The entire period of formation of the papacy can be divided into the following segments:
- Pre-Nicene period I-III centuries. The most difficult time for the first Christian communities. In those years, the Christian religion was considered illegal, and all its followers were persecuted by both the authorities and the common people. Despite this, it was the first Christians who, through their exploits, proved to all of Europe that they were ready to accept martyrdom rather than renounce their religion. Witnesses of the torment and spiritual strength of the first Christians were often also baptized and became the same martyrs;
- From 313 to 493, Christianity was able to establish itself as the state religion of the Roman Empire. In 313, a law on freedom of religion was issued. In 380, Emperor Theodosius the Great made Christianity the state religion, prohibiting sacrifices;
- Ostrogothic period, which lasted until 537. At this time, Christianity experienced difficult times. The barbarians who destroyed the Roman Empire persecuted Christians;
- The Byzantine period of the papacy was quite calm. It lasted until 752;
- Frankish period, which lasted until 857. Since the Franks were baptized back in 496 (possibly in 498 or 503), Christians lived quite well during this period, although closer to the beginning of the 9th century, pagan Vikings began to plunder the monasteries;
- The era of papal humiliation on the part of European monarchs lasted until 1048. The Vikings, who captured and plundered many European lands, despised the Christian religion for many years;
- From 1048 to 1257 the Catholic Church reached the peak of its power. The Pope could dictate his terms even to European monarchs;
- The transitional period of instability, reformation and counter-reformation lasted from 1257 to 1585;
- Age of Enlightenment (from 1585 to 1689);
- The era of gradual weakening of the power of the Catholic Church;
- The era of modern times, which was marked by the return of the sovereign status to the Pope.
According to historians, the most monumental pope was Urban II, who ushered in the era of the Crusades. It was he who contributed to the creation of monastic knightly orders, which subsequently redrew the political map of Europe in accordance with their interests.
Another significant figure in the history of the Catholic Church was Gregory IX, who entrusted the Dominican Order with carrying out the Inquisition.
Features of the papacy during periods of instability
The period from 1309 to 1377 is considered one of the most problematic in the history of the Catholic Church. In those years, France strengthened its influence on the world political stage. The French king Philip the Fair was greatly concerned about the enormous influence of the Catholic clergy and demanded unquestioning submission from Pope Benedict XI.
As a result of the conflict, the French monarch removed the Pope from office, appointing instead his compatriot Bishop Bertrand, who became known as Clement V. To show his power, Philip the Fair ordered the papal residence to be moved to the city of Avignon. Clement V himself was an ambitious man. It was he who began the persecution of the Templar Order, which ended in its complete defeat and destruction. In 1312, the Templar Order was banned.
In 1377, thanks to the efforts of Pope Gregory XI, the papal throne returned to Rome. Despite this, the Catholic Church was already greatly weakened and lost its unity. A period of dual power began, when several people claimed the papal throne at once. The meetings took place either in the Vatican or in Avignon. Only in 1417, with the arrival of Martin V to the Holy See, was it possible to solve this problem.
A hundred years later, in 1517, the period of reformation began in Europe. It is associated with the religious teachings of Martin Luther, who fought against the Latinization of the church. This teaching, called Lutheranism, quickly became popular among the peasant masses, as Luther made religion easier for the common man to understand. Some of the popes made concessions to the reformers, making changes to the rituals. Because of this, the role of the Catholic Church began to slowly but steadily decline.
Soon the period of reformation was over, and the period of counter-reformation began. All heretics were outlawed. Thousands of them were burned at the stake, and their property went to the treasury of the emperor. Thanks to this, all of Europe soon plunged into the chaos of religious civil wars. Catholics and Protestants violently destroyed each other, leaving cities and towns in ruins. The Troubles ended only in 1585, when the period of enlightenment began.
The Catholic Church celebrates the election of a new head of the Holy See
The Catholic Church celebrates the appointment of a new pontiff. Francis, who took the throne of St. Peter, has already become a symbol for many that the church does not stand still and is actively expanding its borders and sphere of influence. A representative of the Jesuit order, a native of Latin America, is an extraordinary case in the relatively established tradition of the Vatican.
Many characterize the new Pope as a man of exceptional modesty, and experts note that these qualities were evident from the first minutes of the papacy.
When the newly proclaimed Pope walked onto the balcony of the Sistine Chapel, he asked those gathered to pray for him. According to experts, until now, new pontiffs usually blessed the crowd themselves and very rarely “condescended” to such a request.
Francis I then called on those gathered in the square to pray for the emeritus, now former pontiff Benedict XVI. Later, Jorge Bergoglio called him by telephone at the Castel Gandolfo residence. What they talked about is still unknown, but presumably Benedict XVI wished good luck to his successor. After a short speech, Jorge Bergoglio wished everyone good night and walked back, while the crowd erupted in shouts of “Long Live the Pope!” and “Argentina! Argentina!".
The choice of a Latin American pontiff was unexpected, but also quite logical in light of the development of the Catholic Church in recent years.
For almost a millennium, the papacy was occupied by Europeans, although experts have repeatedly noted that 42% of all Catholics live in South America. This time, the cardinals chose extensive experience in pastoral ministry over academic education and proximity to the Vatican.
“It looks like this Pope will have a better understanding of life,” Italian theologian Massimo Fagioli told Reuters. “I don’t expect him to change the doctrine of the church, but he clearly has great qualities as a pastor,” Fagioli said.
“I didn’t expect that it was he (Jorge Bergoglio. - Gazeta.Ru) who would appear on the balcony in a white cassock,” Vatican press secretary Federico Lombardi is perplexed. “It was unexpected, but it shows that the cardinals dared to cross the ocean and expand borders.”
New York Cardinal Timothy Dolan told The New York Times that during a dinner after the final vote, the new pontiff gave everyone a terrible laugh when he told the cardinals, “God will forgive you,” hinting at their choice.
“We are happy that we have a new pope, and the fact that he is from Latin America shows that the church is becoming more open and paying attention to Catholics around the world,” said Leonardo Steiner, secretary general of the Brazilian bishops’ conference.
The monks at the Monastery of St. Francis of Assisi celebrated with joy that the pontiff had taken the name Francis. “This means that he will follow the path of modesty and turn to evangelical simplicity,” says Abbot Mauro Gambetti.
Vatican analyst John Allen, writing in the National Catholic Reporter, recalled that the pope's career coincided with the times of the junta in Argentina. At that time, according to experts, the Church did not make every possible effort to stop the atrocities of the military dictatorship. And in the late 70s, Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio was accused of kidnapping two liberal Jesuit priests. He denied the accusations at the time, and no additional evidence was found. “We live in the most unjust part of the world,” John Allen quoted the cardinal’s 2007 address. “Unfair distribution dominates the world and creates a situation of social sin that limits the opportunities for many of our brothers to live a full life.”
The pontiff will not yet be able to rest after a week of secret meetings and voting: his next days are scheduled by the hour.
On Thursday at 17.00 local time (20.00 Moscow time), Francis will receive all cardinals in the Sistine Chapel - both those who had the right to vote and those who did not vote. And on Sunday, the Pope will have to read the “Angel of the Lord” or “Angelus” prayer for the first time in his new status. According to tradition, the pontiff reads a prayer together with those praying in St. Peter's Square in the Vatican every Sunday at noon, preceded by a sermon.
The inaugural mass of the pontiff and the enthronement of Francis I will take place next Tuesday.
Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio was not on the list of favorites, although, according to Reuters, he was second in the race to lead the Roman Catholic Church in 2005. Then Benedict XVI overtook him. For the first time, the See of St. Peter was occupied by a Jesuit from Latin America. The new Pope was congratulated by the country's President Christina Kirchner. “Today is a historic day. For the first time in 2,000 years of church history, we will have a Latin American pope,” Kirchner said. “We wish Francis with all our hearts that he will be able to achieve fraternal relations between different peoples and representatives of different religions.”
Despite the fact that the new pope belongs to the Jesuit order, towards which many Catholics have an ambiguous attitude, the majority so far give the pontiff positive assessments. “He was always a very sincere, calm person. He never cheated, and he is an outstanding intellectual,” Father Gabriel, rector of the Church of San Jose de Flores in Buenos Aires, said about Francis. The pontiff spent his childhood and youth near this church, and later he often held services here. “True, while I was studying at the seminary, I smoked like a steam locomotive,” added Father Gabriel.
“When Jorge was a teenager, he used to play ball with us in Piazza Erminia Brumana,” recalls 68-year-old Osvaldo Dapueto. — True, as soon as I entered the seminary, I immersed myself in my studies. It used to happen on Saturday, and we play football. He waves to us and moves on to study.”
In the metropolitan district of Flores, where Jorge Bergoglio spent his childhood and youth, he is already called “the pope from the area,” and neighbors are happy to talk about what a modest life the future pontiff led. “He studied a lot, he didn’t play on the street at all,” recalls Marta, who lived on the neighboring street all her life. “He’s a good man,” her husband Raphael succinctly characterizes the Pope.
While Jorge Bergoglio was an Argentine cardinal, he lived in a small apartment next to a church, ran his own affairs, refused to have a secretary, often traveled to small villages, and visited prisons and hospitals. His former press secretary Guillermo Marco told the Argentine newspaper Clarin that on Maundy Thursday the cardinal washed the feet of beggars and visited AIDS patients. “Every day he gets up at 05.30 to pray. Even as a cardinal, he led an ordinary life,” Marco admitted.
An independent cardinal, he went to Rome alone with a small suitcase, and after the presentation to the public, he abandoned the papal limousine and went to the hotel with other cardinals by bus.
However, not everyone is happy about the new Pope. The Argentine gay community was stunned that the throne of St. Peter was occupied by a cleric who led a “crusade” against same-sex marriage. “When the same-sex marriage bill was discussed in 2010, Bergoglio was in strong opposition. Then he sent a letter of appeal to all churches in the country and said that same-sex marriage is the devil’s machinations to destroy the family and Argentine society,” said Esteban Paulon, president of the LGBT Federation in Argentina. Gay community activist Diego Trerotola believes that the new pontiff is a “disgrace” for the entire church.
Bergoglio was born in Buenos Aires into a family of Italian descent. At the age of 22 he joined the Jesuit order. Ten years later, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became a priest and then a professor of theology at the College of San Miguel in the capital of Argentina. The new pontiff has had an impressive career within the Catholic Church. Already at the age of 34, he was the rector of his alma mater, the Seminary of St. Joseph. Two years later he was appointed auxiliary bishop of Buenos Aires, a rarity for a Jesuit in non-missionary countries. In 1998, after the death of Cardinal Quarracino, Bergoglio became Archbishop of Buenos Aires. In the Roman Curia, the pontiff was a member of the Congregation for the Clergy, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, as well as a member of the Commission for Latin America and the Pontifical Council for the Family.
History of the papacy in modern times
In 1929, the Pope was able to regain his status as head of the Vatican City State. This marked the beginning of a new era of revival of the Catholic Church. Over the entire modern history of the papacy, eight Supreme Pontiffs were elected, each of whom was able to make his own contribution to the history of the Catholic Church. The new period is characterized by a number of reforms that the Catholic Church adopted in order to keep up with the trends of the new time.
In 1962, the Second Vatican Council was convened, at which Pope Paul VI considered it necessary to carry out a number of reforms in order to update the Catholic Church in connection with the realities of our time. This measure was forced, since after World War II the Catholic Church lost a huge number of parishioners who transferred to other religious denominations. This happened due to the fact that the Catholic Church strongly supported and collaborated with Nazi Germany. As a result of the council, which met for three years, the code of canon law was revised.
Pope John Paul II approved and signed the new code in 1983. Thanks to the actions of this Supreme Pontiff, who remained in this position for 27 years, the Catholic Church again acquired enormous authority and influence in modern society.
The current high priest is Francis, who is not European. This is an Argentine who became the first person of non-European origin to be confirmed as head of the Catholic Church.
The residence of the Pope is located in the Vatican. This is the Apostolic Palace, which is a work of architectural art. There is an archive, the Sistine Chapel, St. Peter's Cathedral and Library and many other places of worship.
History of the Catholic Church
How the Apostolic Church Became Catholic
It all started with the fact that they walked around Palestine 12
people led by Christ and preached a new teaching, which received its name from the name of Christ - Christianity.
The Christian Church began with the 12
Peter - First Pope
The most active among the disciples of Jesus was the future apostle Peter, so from the very beginning he was the undisputed leader among the followers of Christ. The famous words of Christ: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build a church, and the gates of hell will not prevail against it, and I will give you the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven, and what is bound by you on earth will be bound in heaven,” give the basis for Catholics to consider the Apostle Peter the first Pope of Rome. Therefore, starting from XIII
century, an indispensable attribute of all Roman Popes is the so-called “fisherman’s ring”, named after the Apostle Peter, who, as we know, before his calling as a disciple of Christ, was a simple fisherman. Every new Pope receives this ring during his coronation or inauguration. Initially, the “fisherman’s ring” served as a seal, but now it is simply a bishop’s ring, which symbolizes betrothal to the diocese, that is, to the entire Catholic Church. When greeting the Pope, Catholics kneel and kiss the fisherman's ring. After the death of the Pope, the cardinal-camerlengo (that is, the chief administrator of the papal court), in the presence of his assistants, solemnly breaks this ring so that no one can take advantage of its power until a new Pope is elected. However, this beautiful tradition is, rather, the desire of Catholics to consider the Apostle Peter the first Pope, rather than actually being based on real events, since at the time of Peter the institution of the papacy had not yet been created.
Election of bishops
Initially, a small group of Christians was led by the disciples of Christ themselves, elevated by Him to the rank of apostles (Greek: “messenger with a special mission”), whose special mission was to preach the Gospel. At first, the apostles did everything themselves: they preached, baptized, monitored the collection and distribution of donations, and did other household chores. But the number of believers grew, and it became clear that the apostles needed helpers who would take upon themselves the solution of economic issues, and the apostles would go about their direct business - bringing the Word of God to people. For this purpose, seven people were chosen from among the believers who became the first deacons (Greek “diakonos” - “servant”). When the number of believers already reached thousands, it became clear that the twelve apostles were no longer physically able to cope with the preaching of the Word of God and reach all those who were eager to hear the words of truth. It was decided to elect people locally who would represent the apostles and lead the communities on their behalf. This is how the position of bishop appears in Christian communities (ancient Greek “supervisor”, “supervisor”), that is, “overseer”, “trustee” or “senior mentor”, whose duties included maintaining order, conducting correspondence, and supervising issues nutrition, that is, to perform purely administrative duties, as well as the duties of a community leader. Bishops differed from the apostles in that they could only lead their specific community or diocese (Greek “region”, “possession”). At the same time, it was customary for all bishops to address themselves as “papa” (ancient Greek “pappas” - “father”), emphasizing their respect and respect for this person, as well as their authority to bless their parishioners.
First popes
Rome was the generally recognized capital of the world, towering above all other countries, which were practically Roman provinces. By analogy with this position as the world capital, the Christians of Rome tried to give their community the same privileged position among other communities as the eternal city itself occupied among all other cities. Already in 4
century, opinions began to be heard that the Roman Church should be considered the main one in the Christian world, and its bishop should occupy the main position among all other bishops on the basis that in Rome the most martyrs died, including the great apostles Peter and Paul themselves, and that their death made Rome the holiest city on earth.
The vanity of the Roman emperors also infected the Roman bishops, and gradually they began to claim the special title of “bishops of all bishops” so that it would distinguish them from all other bishops. Thus, the Roman Bishop Marcellinus (296-304) took from the East their usual address to the bishop: “dad” (Greek “pappas” - “father, father”) and was the first to call himself by this title. The earliest known mention of the title "pope" dates back to the late 3rd
century, which was found in the Roman catacombs of Saint Calixtus.
Between the 2nd
and
3rd
centuries, the status of “pope” was held by the patriarch of the Alexandrian church, as well as the bishop of Carthage.
However, starting from the 7th
century AD.
the title "pope" began to be given only to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria. Beginning in the early Middle Ages, the title "pope" already became the generally accepted status of the bishop of Rome. In 1073
Pope Gregory
VII
declared that the right to bear this title belonged only to the Bishop of Rome. So the bishop of Rome turned into the Pope.
Christian Emperor
B IV
century, Emperor Constantine appears on the political scene, thanks to whom Christianity makes a sharp turn from persecution for faith to a state religion.
Before him, all emperors considered it their duty to persecute Christians, forcing them to renounce Christ and accept the religion of Rome. Christians fought to the death, but categorically refused to betray Christ. The emperors included sanctions, and the result was mass persecution on a national scale. Constantine was the first of the emperors to understand that it was necessary not to fight with Christians, but to be friends. Because Christians are the very people who will provide him with glory and power. Constantine's path to the throne was tortuous and thorny. It began with the fact that the current emperor Diocletian decided to introduce an innovation into the governance of the country, which consisted in the fact that he divided his power between four emperors: two ruling emperors, who were called “Augustus”, and two of their deputies, who bore the title of “Caesar” " With the help of this reform, Diocletian hoped to solve the problem of succession of power: “August” would be replaced by his “Caesar,” who, in turn, would also choose his own “Caesar,” and so on. This system was supposed to save the country from the struggle for power and unnecessary bloodshed. The two "Augustus" were Diocletian himself, who ruled in the East, and Maximian, who ruled in the West. As the future will show, this turned out to be a bad idea, which as a result will lead to the division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western. Galerius became the deputy of Diocletian himself, and Constantius Chlorus became the deputy of Maximian. In 304
, Diocletian fell ill and Galerius forced him to abdicate, and then forced Maximian to abdicate by threatening to seize his territory.
Thus, in 305
power passed to Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, who themselves became "Augustes".
They, in turn, acquired their own “Caesars” - they became Severus and Maximin Daya, both proteges of Galerius. However, these new appointments caused discontent in the legions, since they had their own candidates for the next “Caesars”: the son of Constantius, Constantine, and the son of Maximian, Maxentius. Moreover, Constantine was kept as a hostage at the court of Galerius in order to neutralize his father, Constantius Chlorus. However, Constantine managed to escape and soon joined his father. And when Constantius died, the troops proclaimed Constantine their “Augustus.” Meanwhile, Maxentius, the second candidate of the legions, invaded Rome, causing Severus, who ruled the eternal capital, to commit suicide. Galerius was about to enter the territory that Maxentius had captured, but Galerius’ troops began to en masse go over to Maxentius’s side, and he had to return to his east. As a result, seeing what a mess it was and no one was able to manage the empire, Galerius was forced to ask Diocletian to return back to power and put everything in order. But Diocletian said that he preferred to grow cabbage in his village and refused to return to power. As a result, a compromise was found in the form of another August
- Licinius.
All this time, Constantine sat in his home in Gaul and Britain, and waited for his finest hour. In 311
, Galerius unexpectedly died, and the empire was divided between Licinius, Maximin Daia, Maxentius and Constantine. Then the latter decided that it was time to act, convened his army, crossed the Alps and invaded Rome, where Maxentius ruled. Now this latter was taken by surprise, failed to provide real resistance, as a result of which he fell off the bridge and drowned. Thus, Constantine became master of the western part of the empire.
From Rome to Constantinople
Meanwhile, the eastern part of the empire was divided between Maximin Daia and Licinius. To prevent Licinius from laying claim to the lands he had seized from Maxentius, Constantine prudently gave him his half-sister Constantia in marriage. While they were concluding this agreement, Maximin Daia captured the main city of Licinius - Byzantium. True, Licinius immediately jumped up and defeated the enemy, after which Maximin Daia had to flee, which is why he soon died, apparently not having survived the shame. Thus, Constantine dealt with Maxentius, and Licinius dealt with Maximinus, and now of the four emperors there were only two left: Constantine and Licinius. Now Constantine ruled the western part of the empire, centered in Rome, and Licinius ruled in the east, including Egypt. However, the vast Roman territory was too small for the two of them, since each of them wanted the entire empire for themselves. So sooner or later, of the two emperors, only one had to remain. IN 322
Constantine captured the lands of Licinius and invaded Byzantium.
He promised Licinius himself to spare the life in exchange for his abdication, and having received the latter, he ordered the death of his son-in-law. Thus, Constantine became master of the entire Roman Empire. Now he needed another center from which he could control the entire vast territory of the empire - both western and eastern. Ancient Byzantium, the former capital of the possessions of Licinius, was ideal for this purpose. However, he was too small for Constantine's grandiose plans. And the emperor decides to completely rebuild and strengthen the old city in order to make it his capital and name it in his honor - Constantinople, that is, “the city of Constantine.” And since the new capital arose on the site of the old city of Byzantium, this entire eastern part of the empire received the name Byzantine. Under Constantine, the attitude towards Christians changed radically: persecution was stopped, confiscated property was returned to Christians, Christian churches began to be built throughout the empire, replacing pagan temples, and Christians themselves began to be appointed to high government positions. The pinnacle of Constantine's Christian policy was his decree of 325
, ordering the worship of God on the first day of the week, that is, Sunday. By this decree, Christianity was officially elevated to the rank of state religion. From now on, being a Christian was considered not only legal, but practically obligatory. The Christian Church is coming out of hiding and rising to its full height, without fear of persecution for its faith.
"Catholic" Church
Along with the acquisition of freedom, the church closely monitored the purity of the ranks within itself, as a result of which it received the name “catholic” or “Catholic” (Greek “universal.”) This name was first heard by Ignatius the God-Bearer, Bishop of Antioch, around 110
year. The church began to call itself this way in order to separate itself from various kinds of sects and heretical movements, in particular Arianism. Arianism is a heretical movement named after its author - Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, who argued that Jesus Christ is not the Second Person of the Godhead. Discussions on this issue ended with the Council of Nicaea, which strongly condemned the Arian heresy, which was held on the initiative of Constantine. However, it is possible that all of these religious reforms of Constantine were purely political in nature, and having acted as a “defender of Christians,” Constantine simply used Christianity as a powerful political rear in order to ensure reliable support for himself among the Christian population. Be that as it may, it was Constantine who raised Christianity to such a height, thanks to which it turned from a Jewish sect into a powerful European religion, which not only survived the fall of the Roman Empire, but also helped its eastern branch, Byzantium, survive, and also took took over political functions on the site of the ruins of the western branch, which finally ceased to exist. After Constantine's death, civil strife and power struggles began again between his sons and Constantine's other relatives, which ultimately led to the division of the empire.
Division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern
The Roman Empire, which had grown to gigantic proportions, had by that time absorbed most of Western Europe, so it was practically impossible to govern such a vast territory from one center. While at one end of the empire the army was establishing order, at the other end the conquered peoples were spiraling out of control. The army rushed to a new “hot spot”, at which time an uprising broke out again in the old place. Therefore in 395
year, the last emperor of the still unified Roman Empire, Theodosius, before his death, divided it into two parts, bequeathing the western half to his youngest son Honorius, and the eastern half, with the capital in Constantinople, to his eldest son Arcadius. It was this event that played a major role in the fact that, following the empire, the hitherto united Christian Church would also be divided into Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. How exactly this process took place will be clear from the course of political events of that time.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The division into two branches did not save the empire: in the end, it began to crack at all the seams, hordes of barbarians broke through the defenses and poured into the territory of the Roman Empire from all sides. The fall of the Western part of the Roman Empire did not occur immediately, but gradually. It turned out that the military leaders under the emperors had long since become not the native Romans, but the vassal leaders of the conquered peoples. Since they did not have patriotic feelings for Rome, they gradually ceased to serve the country that enslaved them and began to enter into an agreement with the tribes that were called upon to contain them on the borders of the empire. Massive betrayals began, as a result of which one Roman province after another found itself in the hands of barbarians. IN 452
The Huns under the command of Attila invaded Italy.
In 455
, Rome was attacked by Vandals led by Geiseric.
As a result, it was already difficult to determine where the barbarian occupiers were and where, so to speak, the local Roman barbarian defenders were. As a result, instead of the Roman emperors, the leaders of the German legions often found themselves on the throne, and it is difficult to say who they were: external invaders or local defenders, so mixed were both. So, in 476
, the last emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire was the son of a German commander and Roman mother, Romulus-Augustus, who received the nickname “Augustus” because he was only
16
years old. Due to his youth, he lost control and was removed from power by another barbarian leader, Odoacer, who declared himself ruler of Italy. This event is considered the official fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Western Christianity
As a result of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a political vacuum was created in its place, which, oddly enough, was filled by the Christian Church. The invasions of the barbarians, as strange as it may sound, served the Christian Church well, for it was thanks to the invasions of the barbarians that the authority of the popes sharply increased. It was the Roman Bishop Leo the Great who negotiated with the leader of the Huns, Attila, and the leader of the Vandals, Geiseric, which ended with the Huns turning north without entering Rome at all, and the Vandals limited themselves to robbery, without resorting to the destruction of the eternal city by fire. Naturally, after this the authority of the Roman bishop jumped sharply. IN 579
The year Rome was besieged by the Lombards, and again the eternal city was saved by the Roman Bishop Pelagius II, who paid off the invaders.
Soon an epidemic broke out in Rome due to the fact that the water supply and sewage systems did not work. Pelagius personally fed the hungry and buried the dead, as a result of which he himself fell ill and died. Rome was destroyed and sacked. The Emperor was not there. His functions had to be taken over by the Roman Bishop Gregory, who organized the delivery of grain from Sicily, the repair of the water supply system, and also maintained the morale of the Roman garrison. He personally entered into negotiations with the Lombards and concluded a truce with them. To protect themselves from the Lombards, the Roman bishops were forced to turn to the Franks for help, since the Roman army practically no longer existed. In exchange, the Roman bishop Zacharias agreed to dismiss the Frankish king, Childeric III the Fool, and install King Pepin on the throne in 753
.
In 800
, the alliance of the popes and the Franks (the future French) became even closer and was marked by the fact that Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne with the title of Holy Roman Emperor.
Thus, 324
years after the last Roman emperor was deposed, the church restored secular power from the ruins of the destroyed Roman empire.
The possessions of Charlemagne at the time of his coronation were practically equal to the territory of the former Roman Empire. Thus, the church, with its power, actually restored the ancient Roman empire, but with European emperors who grew out of the barbarian Germanic tribes. The ancient Western Roman Empire broke up into the states of modern Western Europe, which still exist today. As the heirs of the Roman emperors, the popes took their title "Pontifex Maximus", which means "the greatest builder of the bridge connecting heaven and earth." Since the 5th
century, the title "Pontiff" has become an honorary title for popes.
Confrontation between papal and royal power
After Emperor Charlemagne was crowned by papal authority, popes, in fact, became equal to kings, and perhaps even superior to them. Now the kings were subordinate to the popes, which, naturally, could not please the European rulers. In 1089, the College of Cardinals was created, which alone had the right to choose a new pope. Emperor Henry IV was the first to try to rebel against this state of affairs. He plucked up courage and removed one of the bishops and appointed another in his place. In response to this, sanctions followed from Pope Gregory, who ordered Henry to appear to him in Rome by the date appointed by him, otherwise he would be deposed and his soul would go to hell. Henry's response was a council he convened, which declared Pope Gregory himself deposed for despotism, adultery and magic. To this, the pope pronounced his sentence, which stated that Henry was henceforth prohibited from ruling any state in Germany or Italy, and everyone who swore allegiance to him was released from their oath and had no right to obey him as king. At first, Henry was determined to resist to the end, but the number of his supporters began to decrease sharply, as a result of which he decided not to risk the throne and submit to the pope. The meeting took place in Canossa, the residence of the pope. Henry hoped that the pope would receive him one on one, and he would be able to apologize without witnesses. However, Gregory demanded public repentance. As a result, Henry was forced to stand barefoot in the snow for three days, begging the pope to accept him. Having enjoyed the humiliation of his enemy, Gregory finally deigned to give Henry an audience, canceled his sentence and granted the king forgiveness. Henry hurried to his home in Germany, since in his absence there had already been an uprising against him and they were going to put an impostor on the throne. Henry arrived and challenged the impostor to a battle, in which he died. After this, the emperor's supporters elected a new pope, Clement III. Having gathered an army, Henry again marched on Rome to sort things out with Gregory, but he fled to his castle. As a result, Henry entered Rome in triumph, and Clement III took his place as Pope. So the struggle for power of the popes and kings continued until Napoleon Bonaparte put an end to it.
Split into Western and Eastern Churches
As a result of numerous theological disputes that began with 863
years and continued for several centuries, a deep conflict arose between the western and eastern branches of the church.
Theological disputes between both branches took place against the background of a personal conflict between the two heads of these branches. The Roman bishops, who pathetically called themselves popes, following the example of the Roman emperors, increasingly sought world domination within the church. Therefore, they constantly claimed control over the eastern branch, which, in turn, became more and more independent. The bishops of Constantinople did not want to recognize the power of the popes, believing that they had equal rights with them. Mutual accusations of apostasy from the canon of Holy Scripture in the conduct of various rituals (celibacy of priests, wearing rings by bishops on their hands, depicting a cross on the floor slabs and walking on it) ended with the fact that on July 16, 1054 , three
papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia and They placed a distinctive letter on the altar, in which the Patriarch of Constantinople was anathematized.
After this, on July
20, the Patriarch of Byzantium anathematized the legates themselves with a similar anathema.
Thus, having exchanged mutual curses and excommunications of each other, in 1054
the Western Church began to call itself the Roman Catholic (Ecumenical) in order to disown the heretics of Constantinople, and whose center became Rome, and the Eastern Church, in turn, called itself Orthodox, emphasizing that only she “correctly glorifies God,” unlike the Roman apostates, and proclaimed Constantinople as her center.
The final division of the united Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox took place. This division has not yet been overcome, despite the fact that mutual anathemas
were lifted by both churches 1965
Inquisition
IN 1215
year, Pope Innocent III created a special judicial body of the Catholic Church called the “Inquisition” (from the Latin “search”, “investigation”) to investigate cases related to heresy and witchcraft.
The full name of this body is: “The Holy Department for the Investigation of Heretical Sinfulness.” Simultaneously with the Inquisition, auto-da-fé (Latin literally “act of faith”) was introduced, that is, the public execution of death sentences of the Inquisition. The Catholic Church justified its right to carry out executions of heretics by burning at the stake with words from the Bible: “Whoever does not abide in Me is cast out like a branch and withers, but such branches are gathered and thrown into the fire, and they are burned” (John 15: 4-6). It turns out that the Catholic Church has taken upon itself the mission of God to decide who to punish and who to have mercy, which, in fact, is sacrilege, since this right belongs only to God, and He did not transfer it to anyone. The creation of this punitive body represents the darkest page in the history of the entire Catholic Church, since throughout its existence the Inquisition sent several hundred thousand people to the stake on charges of heresy and witchcraft, among them such an outstanding scientist as Giordano Bruno, as well as the national heroine of France during the Hundred Years' War, Joan of Arc. This shameful judicial body of the church, which compromises not only the church, but also the Lord Himself, was repeatedly tried to be closed, however, it was revived several times. The first attempt to abolish the Inquisition was made in 1808
by King Joseph Bonaparte, the senior baht of Emperor Napoleon I. However, in
1814
Ferdinand
VII
restored it again.
In 1820
, the Constitution of the Cortes abolished it a second time, however, the restoration introduced it a second time.
It was only in 1834
that the Inquisition was finally abolished.
The last auto-da-fé was carried out in Valencia in 1826
by hanging. However, oddly enough, the Inquisition has not gone away, and still exists in our time. Now this organization is modestly called “Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.” Naturally, we are no longer talking about any torture or bonfires. Now this organization is quietly and peacefully checking the Catholic priests themselves. That is, something like the internal security service under the Pope. The most that priests face when meeting with the modern Inquisition is deprivation of their ecclesiastical rank.
Reformation
In the process of more and more increasing authority of the Catholic Church and the elevation of its power over society, it gradually degenerated from a comforter and protector of the flock entrusted to it into a gloomy dictator and oppressor. The chaos of the Catholic Church reached its peak in the form of the terror of the Inquisition, raging over the territory controlled by the pope. In addition, there were other obvious signs of degradation of the Roman Catholic church institution: - corruption of the church hierarchy, expressed in the purchase and sale of church positions, - the introduction of a system of indulgences, that is, the purchase and sale of absolution for money, which replaced the true repentance provided for The Bible - a ban on reading the Bible to ordinary people on pain of death (so that they could not see a clear departure from the gospel mission of the church to bring the Word of God to people). All this led to the fact that, in practically all segments of the population, from kings to the downtrodden peasantry, dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church slowly but surely grew. As a result of this, a powerful religious and political movement arose in Europe against the dictatorship of the Catholic Church, which received the general name Reformation (Latin “reformatio”, that is, “correction”, “transformation”). The first shoots of the Reformation appeared in England in the 14th century
century, when Oxford University professor John Wycliffe, in his writings in
1379
, declared that the head of the church was Jesus Christ, and not the Pope.
Only thanks to the intercession of the English royal court and his native university, Wycliffe managed to avoid persecution by the Pope. He retired to his Lutterward, where he died peacefully of natural causes from a stroke in 1384
.
True, he was posthumously declared a heretic, and his remains were burned. Students from the Czech Republic picked up these ideas of the English professor and disseminated them in their homeland, which soon found the support of Jan Hus, rector of the University of Prague. Jan Hus began to preach the need for church reform in the Czech Republic, as Wycliffe did in England. But Jan Hus was unlucky: Pope Martin V
declared Jan Hus a heretic and sentenced him to be burned at the stake.
However, the power of the Catholic Church still came to an end. The official beginning of the Reformation is considered to be October 31 1517
, when Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg, nailed his famous “95 Theses on the Righteousness of Faith” to the doors of the castle church.
They exposed the anti-evangelical activities of the Catholic Church and proclaimed the biblical principle of salvation only on the basis of faith in Jesus Christ, that is, a return to the basics of Holy Scripture. The main principle of returning to the Word of God was the motto proclaimed by Martin Luther “Sola scriptura” (Latin for “scripture only.”). When Luther was summoned by Emperor Charles V
and demanded to renounce his views, Luther uttered his famous words: “I stand on this and cannot do otherwise. May God help me." Luther was saved from the massacre of the Inquisition by Elector Frederick the Wise, who did not want to abandon his professor in trouble. Frederick's people kidnapped Luther on the way from Worms, and even Frederick himself was not privy to the secret of his stay, so as not to lie if anyone asked him about it. Luther was placed in the distant castle of Wartburg, which only Frederick’s secretary, Georg Spalatin, knew about. This saved Luther's life. In Wartburg he worked on translating the Bible into German. Luther's ideas were taken up by his supporters and followers, who became known as "Lutherans." The work of the Reformation was continued by John Calvin, whose supporters were called “Calvinists.” Thus, a kind of religious revolution took place, during which, in opposition to the papacy, a new religious movement arose - Protestantism, which became the third direction of Christianity after Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
Decline of the Papacy
The Great French Revolution unexpectedly put an end to the era of all-powerful popes. IN 1798
In the same year, Napoleon's revolutionary French army under the command of General Berthier entered Rome, where the Roman Republic was immediately proclaimed.
The elderly Pope Pius VI
82
at that time .
Revolutionary French officers demanded that Pius VI
renounce secular power, to which the pope refused.
Then his “fisherman’s ring” was torn off the pope, he was arrested and taken from Rome to France, where a year later he died in the Valence fortress. In 1809
, the Papal States were abolished and became part of the French Empire.
The Pope had to renounce his temporal power and be content with the position of Bishop of Rome. Pius VII
also refused to recant, and was also sent into exile.
Until 1929
, the status of the Holy See remained unclear.
The popes lived on Vatican Hill and considered themselves “Vatican prisoners.” Only February 11, 1929,
an agreement was signed between the Mussolini government and Pope Pius
XI
