From Nero to Constantine: why did Roman emperors persecute Christians?

Persecution under Emperor Nero (64–68)

Beheading of the Apostle Paul

The reason was a severe fire in Rome in 64; the emperor himself was blamed for it. To divert suspicion from himself, Nero appointed Christians as guilty. From a legislative point of view, Christians found themselves “in a vacuum” - they ceased to obey Jewish legislation and the laws of the Roman Empire, which was officially pagan. Christians began to be considered enemies of society and the state.

Christians were persecuted in Rome itself and its environs. Those who openly professed Christianity were nailed to crosses, thrown to be devoured by wild animals, and burned to illuminate the city at night. According to Tradition, it was during this period that the Apostle Peter was crucified upside down, and the Apostle Paul’s head was cut off.

How did Roman citizens see Christians?

In many ways, the reason for the difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire lay in the prejudiced attitude of Roman citizens towards them. All inhabitants of the empire were hostile: from the lower strata to the state elite. Various kinds of prejudices and slander played a huge role in shaping views of Christians in the Roman Empire.

To understand the depth of misunderstanding between Christians and Romans, one should turn to the treatise Octavius ​​by the early Christian apologist, Minucius Felix. In it, the author’s interlocutor Caecilius repeats traditional accusations against Christianity: the inconsistency of the faith, the lack of moral principles and a threat to the culture of Rome. Caecilius calls the belief in the rebirth of the soul “double madness,” and Christians themselves “dumb in society, talkative in their refuges.”

Under Emperor Domitian (96)

Torment of Antipas

The persecution began in the last months of the fifteen-year reign of the emperor, who was a suspicious tyrant. He pursued a strict financial policy and imposed additional taxes on Jews and those who hid their origins. The latter included Christians. This time the persecution was not limited to Rome and reached the provinces.

Among the victims was the Bishop of Pergamon Antipas, the Apostle John the Theologian was exiled to the island of Patmos.

Persecution of Christians by Roman Emperors in the first three centuries

(54-68) The first real persecution of Christians took place under him. He burned more than half of Rome for his own pleasure, blamed Christians for the arson, and both the government and the people began to persecute them. Many suffered terrible tortures until they were tortured to death.

During this persecution, the apostles
Peter
and
Paul
; Peter was crucified upside down on the cross, and Paul was beheaded with a sword.

The persecution under Nero, which began in 65, continued until 68 (Nero committed suicide), and was hardly limited to Rome alone.

Vespasian

(69-79) and
Titus
(79-81), left Christians alone, as they were tolerant of all religious and philosophical teachings.

Domitian

(81-96), enemy of Christians, in 96
ap.
John the Evangelist was exiled to the island of Patmos.
St. Antipas
, bishop Pergamon, was burned in a copper bull.

Nerva

(96-98) returned from prison all those exiled by Domitian, including Christians. He forbade slaves from informing on their masters and, in general, fought against denunciations, including against Christians. But even under him, Christianity remained prohibited.

Trajan

(98-117).
In 104, for the first time, they tried to bring Christians under the law banning secret societies. This is the first year of state (legislative) persecution.
The result of the correspondence with Pliny the Younger is Trajan's order to persecute Christians, but only if they are accused and the accusation is proven; those who renounce Christianity (this must be proven by sacrifice to pagan gods) should be granted forgiveness.

They suffered, among many Christians, St. Clement, bishop Roman, St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, and Simeon, Bishop. Jerusalem, 120-year-old elder, son of Cleopas, successor in the department of St. Jacob.

Adrian

(117-138) the persecution continued, but he took measures to curb the fury of the crowd against Christians. The accused were to be put on trial and punished only upon recognition of their guilt. (See Eusebius. Church history IV, 8.6) Under him, defenders of Christians - apologists - appeared for the first time. These were Aristide and Kondrat. Their apologies contributed to the publication of this law.

Antoninus Pius

“The Pious” (138-161) continued Hadrian’s policy towards Christians.

Marcus Aurelius the Philosopher (Antonin Verus)

banned Christianity by law
in 177 . Before him, the persecution of the Church was actually illegal and provoked. Christians were persecuted as criminals (attributed, for example, to the burning of Rome or the organization of secret societies).

Under him, St. was martyred in Rome. Justin the Philosopher and his disciples. The persecution was especially severe in Smyrna, where St. Polycarp, bishop Smyrna, and in the Gallic cities of Lyon and Vienna (See Eusebius. Church history V, chapters 1-2).

Commodus

(180-192) was even more likely to be favorable towards Christians, under the influence of one woman, Marcia, probably a secret Christian. But even under him there were isolated cases of persecution of Christians. Thus, in Rome, Senator Apollonius was executed, who defended Christians in the Senate, accused by his slave of belonging to Christianity. But a slave was also executed for denunciation (see Eusebius, Church History V, 21).

Septimius Severus

(193-211) With him:

• among others, Leonidas, the father of the famous Origen, was beheaded,
• the maiden Potamiena was thrown into boiling tar,
• Basilides, one of the executioners of Potamiena, who turned to Christ after seeing the girl’s courage, accepted the martyr’s crown.
• St. was martyred in Lyon. Irenaeus, the local bishop.

In the Carthaginian region, persecution was stronger than in other places. Here Thevia Perpetua, a young woman of noble birth, was thrown into a circus to be torn to pieces by beasts and finished off with a gladiator's sword.

The same fate befell another Christian woman, the slave Felicita, who suffered from childbirth in prison, and her husband Revokat.

Caracal

(211-217) continued private and local persecutions.

Heliogabalus

(218-222) did not persecute Christians, because he himself was not attached to the Roman state religion, but was carried away by the Syrian cult of the sun, with which he sought to unite Christianity.

Moreover, by this time, popular indignation against Christians began to weaken. Upon closer acquaintance with them, especially in the person of the Christian martyrs, the people begin to be dissuaded of their suspicions regarding their life and teaching.

Alexander Sever

(222-235), son of the venerable Julia Mammae, an admirer of Origen. Having mastered the worldview of the Neoplatonists, who sought truth in all religions, he also became acquainted with Christianity. Without recognizing it as an unconditionally true religion, he, however, found in it much worthy of respect and accepted much of it into his cult. In his shrine, along with the divine beings he recognized, Abraham, Orpheus, Apollonius, there was an image of Jesus Christ.

Alexander Severus even resolved a certain dispute between Christians and pagans in favor of Christians.

But Christianity was still not declared a “permissible religion.”

Maximinus the Thracian

(Thracian) (235-238), was an enemy of Christians out of hatred for his predecessor, whom he killed.

Issued an edict on the persecution of Christians, especially the pastors of the Church. But persecution broke out only in Pontus and Cappadocia.

Gordian

(238-244) There was no persecution.

Philip the Arabian

(244-249), was so supportive of Christians that it was subsequently believed that he himself was a secret Christian.

Decius Trajan

(249-251) Decided to completely exterminate Christians. The persecution that began after the edict of 250 surpassed all previous ones in its cruelty, with the exception, perhaps, of the persecution of Marcus Aurelius.

During this severe persecution, many fell away from Christianity.

The brunt of the persecution fell on the leaders of the churches.

In Rome, at the beginning of the persecution, Bishop suffered. Fabian

, accepted martyrdom
Karp,
bishop.
Thyatira, Babyla
, bishop.
Antioch, Alexander
, bishop.
Jerusalem, etc. The famous teacher of the Church Origen
suffered many tortures.

Some of the bishops left for a while the places where they lived and ruled the churches from afar. This is what the saints did .

Cyprian of Carthage and Dionysius of Alexandria.

And St. Gregory of Neocaesarea, together with his flock, withdrew into the desert during the persecution, as a result of which he had no apostates at all.

The persecution lasted only about two years.

Gaul

(252-253) the reason for the persecution was the refusal of Christians to perform pagan sacrifices appointed by the emperor on the occasion of public disasters.
During this persecution, Cornelius
and
Lucius
, successive bishops, suffered in Rome.

Valerian

(253-260) at the beginning of his reign was favorable to Christians, but under the influence of his friend Marcian, a pagan fanatic, he began to c. persecution.

By Edict of 257, he ordered the clergy to be imprisoned, and forbade Christians to convene meetings. Exiled bishops ruled their flocks from places of imprisonment, and Christians continued to gather in meetings.

In 258, a second edict followed, ordering the execution of clergy, beheading of Christians of the upper classes with a sword, exiling noble women into captivity, and depriving courtiers of their rights and estates and sending them to work on the royal estates. Nothing was said about the lower classes, but they were treated cruelly even without it. The brutal beating of Christians began. Among the victims were the Roman Bishop Sixtus II

with four deacons,
St.
Cyprian, bishop Carthaginian , who accepted the crown of martyrdom in front of his flock.

Gallienus

(260-268). With two edicts, he declared Christians free from persecution and returned to them confiscated property, houses of worship, cemeteries, etc. Thus, Christians acquired the right to property.

For Christians, a time of peace has come for a long time.

Domitius Aurelian

(270-275), as a rude pagan, was not disposed towards Christians, but he also recognized the rights granted to them.

Thus, in 272, while in Antioch, he decided the matter of the property interests of the church (Bishop Paul of Samosata, deposed for heresy, did not want to give the temple and the bishop’s house to the newly installed Bishop Domnus) and in favor of the legitimate bishop.

In 275 Aurelian decided to resume the persecution, but in the same year he was killed in Thrace.

During the period of tetrarchy:

west

Under Emperor Trajan (98–117)

Ignatius the God-Bearer

Trajan drew up the legal basis for the persecution of Christians. It all started with his governor, Pliny the Younger, who, in his letters to the emperor, accused Christians of simply belonging to an unfamiliar religion: “I had no doubt that whatever they confessed, they should have been punished for their inflexible rigidity and stubbornness.” The emperor approved the actions of the governor, but the state did not specifically seek Christians for punishment.

Among the victims was the Hieromartyr Ignatius the God-Bearer, Bishop of Antioch.

Emperor Diocletian

With his coming to power, a new era began in the empire. Now all power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, not only de facto, but also de jure and was not limited by anything. Absolute monarchical power. Neither the Senate nor any other inhabitant of the empire, regardless of his rank, could limit the emperor. He himself was the source of power, who stood above all laws. Diocletian restored the unity of the empire and took his friend Maximian as his assistant, giving him the title of Caesar. Together they defended the empire and suppressed uprisings. In 291, the emperor came to the conclusion that it was impossible for two people to effectively govern such a sick country. It was decided to elect two more Caesars - the choice fell on Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximian. They decided to strengthen their union by blood relationship: Constantius divorced his wife and married Maximian’s stepdaughter, Galerius, also after the divorce, married Diocletian’s daughter. They divided the empire among themselves, but Diocletian was still at the head of the government of the country. The system of government of four leaders, which was introduced by the Roman emperor, was called tetrarchy.

Under Emperor Hadrian (117–138)

Martyrs Faith, Hope and Love

The emperor decided to judge Christians according to the law and not pay attention to calls from the crowd to kill Christians they did not understand. The exception is if the accuser can prove the Christian’s guilt in court. It seemed that the law even protected Christians, but in practice, executions solely for faith continued. For example, the Pope Saint Telesphorus was killed. Church Tradition also speaks of the martyrdom of Faith, Nadezhda, Love and their mother Sophia.

Story

Christianity arose in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire - Judea. In the town of Bethlehem, young Mary had a son, Jesus. Later he will be called the Son of God and Christ. Christ translated from ancient Greek means anointed, messenger of God. The Hebrew word Messiah has the same meaning.

After Baptism, Jesus Christ began to preach his teachings. Christ and his disciples went to Jerusalem. Upon entering the city, the people greeted Christ as the king of the Jews, the Messiah, called to free the Jews from the power of the Romans. The Jewish priests were frightened by the rejoicing of the people. They considered Jesus a violator of Jewish law and decided that he should appear before the sacred court - the Sanhedrin.

On the eve of the trial, Jesus had his last meal with his disciples - the Last Supper. Having treated them to bread and wine, Jesus said that the bread was his body, and the wine was his blood. This was the first rite of communion. One of Christ’s disciples, Judas, betrayed him. Christ was arrested.

The Sanhedrin pronounced a death sentence on Christ, for he openly called himself the Son of God, the Messiah. The Roman procurator Pontius Pilate invited the people to have mercy on Christ. However, the people chose the robber to pardon. Pilate confirmed the sentence.

The guards crucified Christ on the cross, driving nails into his hands and feet. A few hours later Christ died. His body was secretly removed from the cross, wrapped in a blanket - the shroud - and buried in a cave.

Christians believe that on the third day Jesus Christ was resurrected. They also believe that Christ atoned for human sins by dying on the cross. Thus, he saved humanity and every person, opening the way to eternal life. For this Christ is called the Savior.

The main thing in the teachings of Christ is the preaching of one God and Christian truths, according to which people should love God and each other. Only in faith and love can people become perfect. Jesus urged people not to accumulate wealth. He taught not to judge other people and to treat others as you would like to be treated yourself.

From the New Testament we know that Christ commanded the apostles to preach his teaching. The Apostle Peter first preached in Jerusalem and then went to Rome. Here he gathered the Christian community. The Apostle Peter is considered the founder of the Christian church.

The Apostle Andrew was the first to be called by Christ to be a disciple. For this he is called the First-Called. According to legend, Andrei preached in those lands where the Slavs later began to live. The Apostle Paul did a lot to spread Christianity. During the life of Christ he was not his disciple. Paul even persecuted Christians before his baptism. But after converting to Christianity, Paul became a tireless preacher of the teachings of Christ and organized Christian communities. Paul proclaimed universal equality in Christ: before God there is neither Greek nor Jew, slave or free, male or female.

The first Christian communities began to emerge in Judea and the East. In the second half of the 1st century they appeared in Rome and Italy. The people in the communities called each other brothers and sisters. Christians gathered for joint prayer and meals, which had a sacred meaning. They had to strictly follow the gospel precepts.

Christians were persecuted in Rome. Under Emperor Nero, the apostles Peter and Paul were executed.

The first Christian communities hid in catacombs - underground caves. Here Christians gathered, set up their modest chapels, and buried their dead. The Roman catacombs have survived to this day and are accessible to visitors.

During the persecution of Christians, they were thrown to the mercy of lions and other wild animals, tortured and executed, but they did not renounce their faith. In the 1st-3rd centuries, Christians accepted martyrdom for their faith. The cult of holy martyrs arose and, as a consequence, the cult of relics.

Gradually, there were more Christian communities. Both poor people and wealthy Romans of noble birth joined them. From such communities arose the church, a religious organization uniting priests and ordinary lay believers. Subsequently, Christian temples - special buildings for worship - began to be called churches.

Bishops became the highest Christian priests. The elders of Christian communities were presbyters. Their assistants were deacons.

The emergence of the church contributed to the further spread of Christianity. Theology began to develop, expanding the boundaries of Christian doctrine.

In 313, an imperial decree (edict) was promulgated in Milan, granting Christians the right to openly and freely practice their religion. In 325, the first Ecumenical Council was convened in the city of Nicaea in Asia Minor - a meeting of bishops from the entire Christian world. Emperor Konstantin also took part in it, which emphasized the importance of this cathedral.

In the 4th century, Christianity finally became the state religion of the Roman Empire. But the struggle within the Christian church continued. In the 5th century in the West, power in the church was assigned to the Bishop of Rome by the Pope. In the East, the Bishop of Constantinople, the Patriarch of Constantinople, enjoyed special authority

Under Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161)

Polycarp of Smyrna

Formally, the policies of Emperor Hadrian continued, but Christians were often tried for professing their faith under the onslaught of an ignorant people who blamed Christians for any cataclysm or failure. The authorities made concessions, as there were more Christians and they were no longer considered a marginal sect. The government feared Christians as freethinkers and rebels, practicing an unofficial religion that threatened the traditional culture of the Romans.

During this period, the holy martyr Polycarp of Smyrna suffered.

Under Emperor Alexander Severus (222–235)

History in pictures. Drawing by Valeria Nerucheva

The emperor was loyal to Christians and even wanted to build a temple in honor of Christ and make Him one of the gods. But Tradition says that during his reign Saint Tatiana and the martyr Martina suffered. As a result of the uprising, the legionnaires of Emperor Alexander were killed, and the soldiers themselves appointed the next ruler.

Textbook on the general history of the Ancient World. Vigasin, Goder. 5th grade. Paragraph 56

• GDZ for a textbook on the general history of the Ancient World. Vigasin, Goder. 5th grade
• GDZ for a workbook on the general history of the Ancient World. Goder. 5th grade. Part 1
• GDZ for a workbook on the general history of the Ancient World. Goder. 5th grade. Part 2

THE FIRST CHRISTIANS AND THEIR TEACHING
Remember what Emperor Nero accused Christians of. To what torment did he condemn them? Did he achieve his goal?

Emperor Nero accused Christians of setting fire to Rome and doomed them to death. Mass executions of Christians took place throughout the city. In order for the Romans to feel disgusted with the Christian arsonists, and at the same time with the new religion, shows of executions were staged. Those doomed to death were crucified on crosses and set on fire at nightfall for the sake of night lighting, given over to be torn to pieces by wild animals and dogs, etc. However, Emperor Nero miscalculated. Numerous and cruel executions aroused only sympathy and pity for poor, innocent people.

Explain the meaning of the words

• Christians are a person who professes Christianity, a follower of Christ (translated from Greek as a follower of the anointed one).
• The Gospel is the story of the birth, life, miracles, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ. By the 2nd century, the Gospels took shape in the form of four canonical books - from the evangelists Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
• Apostle - the closest disciples and followers of Jesus Christ who preached the Gospel. The term "apostle" often refers to the twelve direct disciples of Christ.
• A priest is a clergyman who performs divine services and sacraments.
• The Second Coming is an event expected in all Christian denominations. It is assumed that the second coming will be preceded by many cataclysms (earthquakes) and signs in the sky (the darkening of the sun and moon, the falling of stars from the sky).
• The Last Judgment is the last judgment carried out by God on people in order to identify the righteous and sinners and determine the reward of the former and punishment of the latter.

Test yourself

1. In which Mediterranean country did faith in Jesus Christ originate? Which state was this country under?

Faith in Jesus Christ arose in the cities and villages of Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor, which were under the rule of Rome.

2. What did Jesus Christ teach?

Jesus Christ preached humility and faith in God. He taught forgiveness and love, mercy and equality before God. The sermons talked about the need to treat people the way you would want to be treated. Jesus predicted the Last Judgment and the coming of the kingdom of goodness and justice on earth. At the same time, he threatened punishment for those who did not repent of bad deeds and who worshiped false gods.

3. What hope did the edifying story of Lazarus and the rich man raise for Christians?

The story Jesus told about the beggar Lazarus and the rich man gave rise to hopes that each would be rewarded after death. The poor believed that they would go to heaven, and believed that the hated rich would suffer in hell. At the same time, of course, they forgot that they should be rewarded according to their deserts. And it is good deeds that should be the measure when assessing whether a person lived a righteous life or not. From this story it is not clear whether the beggar Lazarus was worthy of paradise due to his good deeds or whether he got there simply because he suffered during his life.

4. Why were the Roman authorities hostile to Christians? Why did Christians refuse to worship the Roman emperor as a god?

The Roman authorities were hostile to Christians because, fulfilling the commandments of Christ, they did not want to worship “false idols,” namely the statues of emperors, and even the emperor himself as a god. Also, preaching universal equality before God (and not the emperor) undermined the foundations of the Roman state. The widespread spread of Christianity among the poor and slaves threatened mass riots and uprisings. For this, Christians were expelled from cities, they were beaten with sticks, thrown into prison and sentenced to death.

5. How did the popular expressions “Judas the traitor” and “thirty pieces of silver” come about? In what cases are they used today?

Judas the traitor is the name given to people who, being close to a person, pay with evil for good done.

“Thirty pieces of silver” is the payment that Judas received for his betrayal. Today this is the name for any payment or benefit received by a traitor.

Work with the map

Work with the map “Palestine in the Time of Jesus Christ” (see p. 269). Find cities associated with the life of Jesus Christ.

• Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus.
• After the birth of Jesus, his family (according to tradition) fled to Egypt to escape King Herod's hunt for infants, known as the "Massacre of the Innocents."
• Nazareth is the city where they returned after the death of King Herod and where the family of Jesus lived.
• Jesus preached throughout Palestine.
• Jerusalem is the city where Jesus preached and where he was executed.

Note: The tradition of the massacre of the infants is absent from ancient sources, with the exception of the Gospel of Matthew and later Christian texts. Historians pay special attention to the fact that the main source about the reign of Herod - the work of the ancient historian Josephus Flavius ​​"Jewish Antiquities" - does not contain any mention of the massacre of infants in Bethlehem. In this case, it is not very clear whether Jesus' family actually fled to Egypt.

Describe the drawing

Describe the drawing “Gathering of the First Christians” (see p. 268). Guess what the priest tells the believers about.

During the times of persecution in the Roman Empire, Christians had to hide and perform Christian rituals in secret. They gathered in the houses of fellow believers, in secret temples and caves, and read aloud the Gospels about the life of Jesus Christ. To conduct rituals and guide during prayers, Christians chose among their community the most respected, wise and knowledgeable priests in religious texts and rituals. In the picture we see probably one of these secret places. It looks very much like either a basement or a remote cell without windows. A group of people listen attentively to an old priest who is probably telling instructive stories about the life of Jesus or parables from the Old Testament.

Under Emperor Maximinus the Thracian (235–238)

The Torment of St. Hippolyta. Tzortzi (Zorzis) Fuka. Fresco. Athos (Dionysiatus). 1547

Chosen by the soldiers to replace the Emperor Alexander Severus, whom they killed. Maximin hated his predecessor and at the same time all his courtiers, many of whom were Christians. The result was a short-lived persecution that affected mainly clergy accused of teaching Christianity.

During this period, Pope Pontianus, Hieromartyr Hippolytus of Rome and Pope Anter suffered.

Persecution under Maximinus the Thracian

Under Emperor Marcus Clodius Maximinus, the lives of Christians in the Roman Empire were under constant threat. At this time, mass executions were carried out; often up to fifty people had to be buried in one grave.

The Roman Bishop Pontian was exiled to the mines of Sardinia for preaching, which at that time was equivalent to a death sentence. His successor Anther was killed 40 days after Pontian's death for insulting the government.

Despite the fact that Maximin persecuted mainly the clergy who stood at the head of the Church, this did not prevent him from executing the Roman senator Pammachus, his family and 42 other Christians. Their heads were hung on the city gates as intimidation.

Under Emperor Decius (249–251)

Martyr Agathia

He considered Christians dangerous for the state, which by that time was experiencing a crisis. To unite the nation, the emperor arranged obligatory sacrifices throughout the empire, which brought out many Christians. The sacrifice was also regarded as an oath of allegiance to the emperor. Those who did not renounce their faith were cruelly tortured, killed, or kept in prison for a long time.

The most famous martyrs of this period: Pope Fabian, Bishop Nikon of Tauromenia and 199 of his disciples, Martyr Agathia, Martyr Paramon of Bithynia with 370 martyrs. Tradition also speaks of 7 sleeping Ephesian youths.

Conservative policies of Decius Trajan

Decius, who had been at the center of power intrigues for almost a quarter of a century, understood that the empire was experiencing excessive pressure on its external borders, was weakening in internal uprisings, and was losing its former glory as an invincible power. The goal of his policy was the revival of the Roman Empire

, and saw himself as a successor to the work of Octavian Augustus, Vespasian, Trajan (in whose honor he chose the throne name), Hadrian and other best emperors.

Coins of Decius Trajan

In honor of the great emperors of the past, coins were issued, which were used to pay the army and officials; the decrees of Decius and all kinds of documents contained pathetic calls for the restoration of the traditions of the great empire. The emperor's policy was based on the conservative circles of the wealthy Roman nobility, but pathetic references to the past no longer evoked an understanding of the multi-layered and ethnically diverse Roman population.

Decius launched large-scale construction in Rome

, which the lush capital has not seen for two decades. The Colosseum, damaged by fire, has been completely restored. New baths were built on the Aventine. The Decius portico was probably also laid during the reign of Decius, but the emperor did not see the completion of the construction. The architectural style of the new construction was distinguished by pomp and splendor of decor, often excessive.

Coins of Decius Trajan

Decius began his tax reform

, canceling some of the predecessor's regulations and easing the tax burden for remote provinces. Thanks to this step, some of the uprisings in the eastern provinces died out on their own. Decius even began to be glorified as the restorer of freedom. However, the large-scale restoration of the former greatness, conceived by the emperor, would undoubtedly require significant funds, and Rome, exhausted by wars and endless turns of imperial plans, had nowhere to take them from.

Under Emperor Valerian (253–260)

Francesco di Simone da Santacroce. Saint Lawrence

The emperor initially treated Christians normally, but then fell under the influence of his close associate Macrinus, a follower of Eastern cults and an enemy of Christians. Issued two edicts against believers.

The first edict ordered all bishops of the Church to sacrifice to the gods. For refusal - link. It was also forbidden to gather for prayer or in cemeteries.

The second edict ordered the execution of clergy for refusing to make a sacrifice, deprivation of noble Christians of property and, if they resisted, execution. Government officials and their relatives are deprived of property and sent to forced labor.

During this period, a huge number of Christians suffered. Among them: Pope Sixtus II with deacons Lawrence, Felicissimo and Agapit, deacons Hippolytus, Irenaeus.

History of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire

Terrible torture during the persecution of Christians

Stories about how Christians were tortured in the Roman Empire were included in the lives of many saints. Although the Roman legal system favored the sentence of crucifixion or being eaten by lions, more sophisticated methods of torture can be found in Christian history.

For example, St. Lawrence devoted his life to caring for the poor and overseeing the property of the church. One day, the Roman prefect wanted to seize the funds that Lawrence kept. The deacon asked for three days to get ready, and during this time he distributed everything to the poor. The angry Roman ordered the rebellious priest to be brutally punished. A metal grate was placed over the hot coals, on which Lavrenty was laid. His body slowly charred, his flesh sizzled, but the perfect never received an apology. Instead, he heard the following words: “You baked me on one side, so turn me over to the other and eat my body!”

The Roman Emperor Decius hated Christians for their refusal to worship him as a deity. Having learned that his best soldiers had secretly converted to the Christian faith, he tried to bribe them and persuade them to return. In response, the soldiers left the city and took refuge in a cave. Decius ordered the shelter to be walled up, and all seven died of dehydration and starvation.

Cecilia of Rome professed Christianity from an early age. Her parents married her to a pagan, but the girl did not resist, but only prayed for the Lord’s help. She was able to dissuade her husband from carnal love and led him to Christianity. Together they helped the poor throughout Rome. The prefect of Turkey, Almachius, ordered Caecilia and Valerian to sacrifice to the pagan gods, and in response to their refusal, sentenced them to death. Roman justice was to be carried out far from the city. On the way, the young couple was able to convert several soldiers and their commander, Maxim, to Christianity, who invited Christians home and, together with his family, accepted the faith. The next day, after Valerian’s execution, Maxim said that he saw the soul of the deceased ascending to heaven, for which he was beaten to death with whips. Cecilia was kept in a bath of boiling water for several days, but the virgin martyr survived. When the executioner tried to cut off her head, he only managed to inflict mortal wounds. Saint Cecilia remained alive for several more days, continuing to turn people to the Lord.

But one of the most terrible fates befell Saint Victor the Moor. He was secretly preaching in Milan when he was captured and, tied to a horse, dragged through the streets. The crowd demanded renunciation, but the preacher remained faithful to religion. For his refusal, he was crucified and then thrown into prison. Victor converted several guards to Christianity, for which they were soon executed by Emperor Maximilian. The preacher himself was ordered to make a sacrifice to the Roman god. Instead, he attacked the altar with fury. Unconquered, he was thrown into a stone mill and ground.

"Great Persecution" of Emperor Diocletian (303–313)

Anastasia Pattern Maker

The first 18 years of Diocletian's reign were favorable for Christians - they even held government positions and were exempt from mandatory sacrifices to the gods. Moreover, his wife and daughter were also Christians. Severe persecution was started by his co-ruler, Caesar Galerius, who, after a successful military campaign against the Persians, decided to “cleanse” the ranks of the army from Christians. He executed many soldiers.

The turning point came during the sacrifice, when the chief priest announced that it was impossible to know the results of the fortune-telling due to the presence of Christians. The emperor became angry and ordered that everyone in the palace, including the servants, make a sacrifice to the gods; those who refused were flogged. The order then extended to all soldiers of the empire. Those who refused were expelled from service. The emperor's entourage (including Galerius) incited him to open persecution, but Diocletian limited himself to an edict about the destruction of Christian books and temples, depriving Christians of titles and privileges.

Large-scale persecution began after fires in the imperial palace, which were blamed on Christians. From that moment on, they again became enemies of the state, who were tortured and killed for refusing to renounce their faith. Among them are Pope Markellinus, Great Martyr Anastasia the Pattern Maker, Great Martyr George the Victorious, and Martyr Andrei Stratelates. In 304, the emperor issued an edict obliging all Christians in the empire to make sacrifices to the gods, for refusal - death. In 305, Diocletian abdicated power.

Persecution of Christians under Decius

An equally difficult time for Christianity was the reign of Emperor Decius. The motives that prompted him to such cruelty still remain unclear. Some sources say that the reason for the new persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (the events of those times are briefly discussed in the article) was hatred towards his predecessor, the Christian emperor Philip. According to other sources, Decius Trajan did not like the fact that Christianity, which had spread throughout the state, eclipsed the pagan gods.

Whatever the origins of the eighth persecution of Christians, it is considered one of the most brutal. New problems were added to the previous problems of Christians in the Roman Empire: the emperor issued two edicts, the first of which was directed against the high clergy, and the second ordered sacrifices to be carried out throughout the entire empire.

The new legislation was supposed to do two things at once. Every Roman citizen was required to go through a pagan ritual. This way, any person who was under suspicion could prove that the accusations against him were completely unfounded. With the help of this trick, Decius not only discovered Christians, who were immediately sentenced to death, but also tried to force them to renounce their faith.

The young man Peter, known for his intelligence and beauty, was supposed to make a sacrifice to the Roman goddess of carnal love, Venus. The young man refused, saying that he was surprised how anyone could worship a woman whose dissoluteness and baseness were spoken of in the Roman scriptures themselves. For this, Peter was stretched out on a crushing wheel and tortured, and then, when he did not have a single intact bone left, he was beheaded.

The ruler of Sicily, Quantinus, wanted to get a girl named Agatha, but she refused him. Then, using his power, he gave her to a brothel. However, Agatha, being a true Christian, remained true to her principles. The enraged Kvantin ordered her to be tortured, whipped, and then placed on hot coals mixed with glass. Agatha endured with dignity all the cruelties that befell her and later died in prison from her wounds.

Under Emperor Galerius (293–311)

Fedor Tiron

Galerius took power after the abdication of Emperor Diocletian and ruled the East. Together with his nephew, Caesar Maximin Daza, he continued the persecution. Among the victims: Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessalonica, Adrian and Natalia of Nicomedia, unmercenaries Cyrus and John, Great Martyr Theodore Tiron. At the end of his life, it was Emperor Galerius, an implacable enemy of Christians, who issued the first edict in the history of the empire, which made Christianity a “permissible religion.” This happened in 311, when he was struck by an incurable disease.

Diocletian persecutor of Christians

Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletian - one of the greatest Roman emperors (284 - 305 AD). The reign of Diocletian was predicted by a priestess. He managed to make his way from the very bottom of Roman society to its top. He divided the empire with his three companions, managing to maintain control and complete power. He identified himself with the deity and kept Christians at bay, and ended his life alone, growing cabbage in his garden.

Kill a boar

The future Roman emperor Diocletian was born around 245 in the vicinity of Skodra (now Albanian Shkodra) in Illyria, and at birth received the name Diocles (Greek (Διοκλής) . He was the grandson of a slave, and the son of a freedman, came from the lower classes of society. From a young age, Diocles entered the service in the army, quite quickly managed to make a military career for himself, he went with Emperor Carus to the war with the Persians. Campaigns from one end of the Roman Empire to the other allowed Diocles to get to know the larger country better. He rose to the rank of commander of the army under Emperor Carus. There is one Druid in Gaul predicted fate, she said that Diocles would become emperor when he killed a boar (lat. aper). He believed the priestess and since then killed many boars, but power still did not fall into his hands. Unexpectedly, Emperor Carus died, and his son Numerian was treacherously killed by the praetorian prefect Arrius Aprus. The soldiers arrested Arrius Aprus - this was the period of “soldier emperors”, and on September 17, 284, the generals proclaimed Diocles the new emperor. In front of the army, Diocles personally stabbed Arrius Apra (lat. aper-boar) with a sword and exclaimed: “I killed the boar.” On November 20, 284, Diocles became Roman Emperor and took the name Diocletian.

Divide and rule.

Diocletian established a new form of monarchical government - unlimited autocracy - dominata , replacing the principate created by Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus, in which the ruler partly shared his power with the Senate and the people. Now all absolute monarchical power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. Neither a senator nor any other citizen of the empire could limit the power of the emperor, who stood above all laws.

With his rise to power, Diocletian began a new era in the empire. Diocletian restored the unity of the empire, dividing it into eastern and western halves . He himself ruled the eastern part of the empire, and the western part of the empire was ruled by his friend Maximian, who was given the title of Augustus. To protect Gaul, Maximian began wars with the Germans on the Rhine, and Diocletian defended the Syrian border from the Persians, and fought with the Sarmatians on the Danube. Together they defended the empire and suppressed uprisings.

In 291, Emperor Diocletian came to the conclusion that it was impossible for two people to effectively govern such a sick country. It was decided to elect two co-rulers with the title not of Augustus, but of Caesar. Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine the Great, became the Caesar and the commander Galerius Maximian . The rulers of the Roman Empire decided to strengthen their union by blood relationship: Constantius Chlorus divorced his wife and married Maximian’s stepdaughter, Galerius, also after the divorce, and married Diocletian’s daughter. The four of them divided the empire among themselves, Constantius Chlorus ruled Gaul and Britain, and Galerius Maximian ruled Illyria. Both Caesars were crowned on March 1, 293, but Diocletian still stood at the head of the Roman Empire. The system of government of four leaders was called tetrarchy (Greek τετράρχη, from τετρ - square, άρχη - prefect - νομάρχης - “head”).

Diocletian marched to Egypt against the usurper Achilleus, and in 296 he took Alexandria after an 8-month siege, he severely punished the Egyptians. Galerius Maximian moved to Mesopotamia to fight the Persians, who were challenging the Romans for supremacy over Armenia. In 297, Galerius defeated the Persians in Armenia and forced them to cede five provinces beyond the Tigris to the Romans.

After a long era of civil strife and external wars, the Roman Empire regained its power, peace was restored, and the time of Diocletian was hailed as the “ . ” Diocletian is famous for the construction of colossal baths in Rome; the ruins have survived to this day; more than three thousand people could visit the Roman baths at the same time.

Persecution of Christians

The last years of Diocletian's reign - in 303, the most severe persecution of Christians began. There is still debate in scientific circles about whose initiative this was. Some historians are inclined to think that the initiator of the persecution of Christians was the ardent pagan Galerius Maximian, his mother was a priestess and hated Christians. Other historians believe that the idea belonged to Diocletian himself, who tried to piece together his disintegrating empire by resorting to the help of the Roman gods. In Rome, religion was not only a way of communicating with the gods, but was also imbued with contractual relations. The Roman pagan religion, borrowed in part from the Etruscans and Greeks, was based on the fact that the gods will fulfill the requests of believers if they make a sacrifice - give them what they want. Etruscan predictors of the future, observing natural phenomena, tried to find out the will of the gods and reported this to the rulers of Rome. In the Roman Empire, all pagan rites and sacrificial rituals were observed. Paganism was the state religion and the worship of Roman gods became a way of expressing citizens' loyalty to the state. Diocletian was a conservative and adherent of the traditional cult of the Roman gods, he even took the name Jupiter, and Maximian - Hercules. By associating his name with the names of the gods, the emperor declared his right to supreme power in the state.

Diocletian issued an edict according to which Christians were practically deprived of their rights and became “non-citizens” of the empire, Christian churches were subjected to violent destruction, Christian books were burned at the stake, Christians were allowed to be tortured and killed, they were forbidden to seek protection in court, they were deprived of positions and expelled from cities . Due to the fact that the empire was divided into parts, persecution took place differently in different areas. The cruelty that was characteristic of the lands of Diocletian did not reign everywhere.

However, unlike previous persecutions of Christians, Roman society no longer saw Christians as the threat it had previously, and felt sympathy for Christians suffering for their faith.

The persecution of Christians was stopped already in 311 by its main initiator, Galerius. After the death of Galerius, the new emperors, Constantine and Licinius, confirmed the freedom of the Christian faith by issuing the famous Edict of Milan in 313, which granted the right to any citizen of the empire to freely convert to Christianity.

When accepting power, Diocletian stipulated that it would not be for life, and he would rule the empire autocratically for only 20 years, and on May 1, 305, he solemnly resigned his imperial powers, forcing Maximian to do the same, although he did not want to renounce power . The Caesars Galerius and Constantius, who considered themselves heirs to the throne, now received the rank of Augustus, having taken two new Caesars - Severus in the West and Maximin Daza in the East.

Diocletian went to live out his last years in his Balkan homeland in Illyria, on his estate with a magnificent palace near Salona (now Split), where he lived for 8 years. Civil war soon resumed between the new rulers of the empire. He refused the attempt of Maximian and Galerius to convince Diocletian to return to power, noting to them: “You better look at the cabbage I grew” in my garden, then you wouldn’t bother with such nonsense. Unable to involve Diocletian in their troubles, they began to oppress him. A number of historians report that in 313 Diocletian was poisoned, others that he withered away from hunger and depression, while others believe that Diocletian died after a long illness.

Beginning with Diocletian, imperial power finally took the form of unlimited autocracy (dominance), which later passed to Byzantium, and from it to Russia. The source of monarchism was recognized not as the “will of the Roman people,” as was considered during the era of the Principate of Julius Caesar and Augustus, but the will of God. The source of state legislation was not “natural law,” but the highest moral law, God’s truth, which dominates the entire universe. The population of the Roman Empire changed from citizens to subjects.

Ostracism in Athenian democracy

Ancient Greek vases

Under Emperor Maximin Daza (305–313)

Bishop Methodius of Patara

Despite the edict of Emperor Galerius on the recognition of Christianity, Maximin resumed persecution, secretly persuaded the pagans to expel Christians from the cities and tried in every possible way to discredit Christians and Christ.

Among the victims: Bishop Silvanus of Emesa, Bishop Methodius of Patara, Porfiry Stratelates and 200 soldiers in Alexandria. In 313, under pressure from Emperor Constantine, he stopped the persecution of Christians.

Notes of a historian

There are many different opinions about the reasons for the persecution of Christians in ancient Rome. The majority in one way or another comes close to the point of view of Gibbon, who associated persecution with the withdrawal of Christians from public life and their rejection of the imperial cult. The ancient state, despite its religious tolerance, demanded loyalty to the state religion and agreed to the exception only for Jews whose religion was based on the ancient national tradition. Theodor Mommsen believes that Roman religious tolerance extended only to persons who did not enjoy the rights of citizenship, while citizens were required to renounce foreign cults; however, the state accommodated the religious feelings of the population as citizenship rights expanded. Mommsen finds no article in Roman law under which Christians could be held liable as such; they were accused of either blasphemy or lese majeste, and the central government punished Christians only as a concession to the fanaticism of the masses. Only in the 3rd century. some emperors themselves fell under the influence of this fanaticism and organized mass persecution of Christians. Mommsen believes that it was not only the central government that opposed the transition of citizens to foreign cults; municipalities did the same in relation to their citizens.

Reitzenstein associates the persecution of Christians with the prohibition of not foreign, but secret cults and mysteries, and attributes this prohibition to the fear of the Roman government of all sorts of secret alliances, which could become a convenient form for organizing all kinds of anti-state conspiracies.

But there is also a point of view that denies any religious restrictions in Rome at all. Some historians argue that famous cases of prohibition of certain cults were caused only by the fact that their participants were suspected of crimes (the prohibition of bacchanalia), immorality or fraud (the expulsion of the worshipers of Isis and the Jews under Tiberius). Christians were persecuted not for deviating from their national religion, but on suspicion of diverting citizens from their loyalty to the state.

The Christians themselves, as is clear from Tertullian’s “Apology,” tried to prove that they were persecuted for one “name,” although Tertullian notes that Christians, in addition to the “name,” were accused of reluctance to honor the emperor, refusal of public life, debauchery , ritual murders, etc.

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It should be noted that the persecutions of the first two centuries differed significantly in nature from the persecutions of the 3rd century. If in the 3rd century. they undoubtedly came from the central government, were formalized by relevant decrees and were supposed to be of a mass nature, then until the end of the 2nd century. they were more or less random. This is indicated by the well-known testimony of Origen about the insignificance of the number of victims for the faith. Eusebius also mentions only a small number of martyrs during the Antonine era. Lactantius in his work “De mortibus persecutorum” mentions only Nero and Domitian among the persecutors before Decius. Eusebius was even inclined to attribute special edicts in defense of Christians to Antoninus Pius, Hadrian and M. Aurelius. The emergence of the idea of ​​such edicts, of course, could only be explained by the absence of major persecutions on the part of the central government. The same persecutions of Christians that took place occurred spontaneously, and government officials succumbed to external influence rather than playing an active role. This is also indicated by Trajan’s answer to Pliny: Christians should have been punished only when it was necessary, so as not to cause a sharp outburst of discontent. A clear illustration of this policy can be the story given by Eusebius about the death of the Bishop of Smyrna Polycarp, whose death the people gathered in the circus demanded from the prefect.

Often the initiators of the persecution of Christians were priests of various eastern cults, magicians, and soothsayers, who saw Christians as dangerous competitors. The Acts of the Apostles speaks of an attack against Christians by Ephesian artisans who worked for the temple and feared that the success of Christian preaching would affect their income. Eusebius tells the story of the death of the famous Christian figure Justin through the fault of the Cynic philosopher Crescentus, who, having been defeated in public disputes with Justin, convinced the people that Christians were atheists and wicked. The famous Christian pogrom in Alexandria under Philip the Arab began, according to the testimony of Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria, due to the incitement of some magician or poet. Also interesting is the more objective testimony of Lucian, who in his “Alexander, or the False Prophet” shows how the charlatan Alexander, embarking on his mysteries, expels the Epicureans and Christians with the help of a crowd of his admirers. When one of his tricks failed, he set the people against the Epicureans, which he, of course, could do against the Christians.

Indignation against Christians often flared up during various natural disasters, crop failures, and epidemics, since they, as “atheists,” were considered guilty, bringing the wrath and punishment of the gods upon the people.

Causes of persecution in the 3rd century. lay deeper. Christianity arose as a movement of slaves and poor people, disenfranchised and oppressed peoples, conquered and dispersed by Rome. And although in the II-III centuries. The official church began to “forget” the “naivety” of early Christianity; it continued to remain in opposition to the “pagan” empire and hostile “pagan” ideology.

Christianity spread most quickly in the Asian provinces, where New Testament literature was developed and from where, in the 2nd century. Mostly Christian writers came out.

Christianity spread in the province the faster the more Roman rule brought it into decline. Even under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, the provinces apparently maintained visible prosperity. But under M. Aurelius the situation begins to change. True, his biographer speaks of his meekness towards the provincials, but the war and the plague could not help but affect the situation in the provinces. This is indicated by such objective data as the movement of the Bucolians in Egypt, unrest in the province of the Sequani and in Spain, and the rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the eastern provinces.

If under M. Aurelius the symptoms of an impending crisis are already clearly felt, then under him the persecution of Christians begins, a type much closer to the persecution of the 3rd than the 2nd century.

This persecution was started at the initiative of the government. Christians were prohibited from entering baths, public buildings and the forum. This was followed by beatings and persecution of Christians. They were tried in both Lyon and Smyrna, but the number of victims was small. For Asia Minor, Eusebius names 5 - 7 people. For Lugudun, he speaks of 10 fallen away and 5 especially persistent martyrs. There were martyrs in Egypt too. The proconsul asked the emperor about the Gallic Christians and received an order to cut off the heads of those who persisted. This means that the emperor began to attach great importance to the Christian danger, seeing in Christians not just ignorant people infected with gross superstition. Most likely, this new attitude towards Christians can be associated with the movement that began in the provinces. Lugudunum was precisely the most important city of that province of the Sequani, the unrest in which Marcus Aurelius suppressed. Persecution took place in the eastern provinces, where Avidius Cassius acted, and in Egypt, where the Bucolian uprising took place.

There is no indication that Christians took any part in all these disturbances. Roman sources generally rarely mention Christians, and Christian sources would have kept silent about such facts if they had occurred, since they usually aimed to prove the loyalty of Christians. But even if we assume that Christians did not take an active part in the anti-imperial movements, it is quite natural that the government, concerned about the disobedience of the provinces, could not continue to tolerate Christians; opposition-minded elements increasingly began to join the latter.

Septimius Severus behaved in the same way as Marcus Aurelius towards Christians. After the victory over Niger and Albina, he dealt with their supporters, as well as with the cities of Neapolis and Antioch that supported Niger, depriving them of all rights and privileges. In connection with the suppression of the uprising in Syria and Palestine, conversion to Judaism was prohibited. At the same time, the adoption of Christianity was prohibited. This evidence (very important given the rarity of mentions in pagan sources about the policies of emperors towards Christians) is confirmed by Eusebius’ indication of the martyrdom of a number of bishops under Septimius Severus, as well as many catechumens from the school of catechites in Alexandria. The death of bishops indicates that converts and those leading Christian communities were being persecuted. Again, as under M. Aurelius, the persecution of Christians breaks out after the suppression of the movement in the provinces and the uprising of the usurpers.

True, Christian sources directly deny any connection between Christians and elements actively fighting against the empire. Tertullian repeatedly points out that Christians do not conspire, that they do not take revenge, despite the fact that due to their large numbers they could “in one night with several torches repay evil for evil.” Finally, he directly says that among Christians there are no Cassians, Nigers and Albins, who appear only among the pagans. But, firstly, Tertullian is not objective, since he wants to prove the complete loyalty of Christians, and, secondly, even if Christians did not take an active part in the struggle, their passive opposition could no longer be tolerated by the government when provincial uprisings threatened the integrity of the empire . In addition, Christians did not always, apparently, stand completely aloof from any political and anti-imperial struggle. This is indicated by the alliance of Bishop Paul of Samosata with the Palmyra queen Zinovia in her struggle with Rome. Adjacent to Paul was a group of Syrian Christian heretics - anti-Trinitarians, who apparently benefited from the separatist aspirations of Zinovia. As is known, after his victory over the latter, Aurelian also dealt with Paul, supporting the candidacy of an orthodox bishop.

From Septimius Severus to Decius there is no reliable news of persecution. Eusebius briefly mentions that “Maximin persecuted the faithful,” but gives no details. Lactantius does not mention the persecution of Maximinus at all. This may be a strong argument in favor of the fact that these persecutions did not happen at all, since, otherwise, Lactantius, of course, would have used the death of Maximin as another example of the heavenly punishment that befalls the persecutors.

It should be noted that if in relation to the majority of emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries. Christians could with some right claim that only tyrants and villains were their persecutors, then at the end of the 2nd century. and, most importantly, in the 3rd century. the picture is changing. Without going into a detailed analysis of this extremely obscure source, we note, however, that its orientation was mainly Senate-oriented. The authors always give the emperors credit for respecting the Senate and not executing senators for no reason. High respect for the Senate is attributed in particular to two persecutors - M. Aurelius and Valerian. Decius also came from among the senators, whose biography, unfortunately, has not been preserved, and scanty information about whom can only be gleaned from the biography of Valerian.

Under most anti-Senate emperors, Christians enjoyed more or less significant freedom and security. The attitude of the Roman Senate class towards Christians has always been hostile. This can be seen in the example of the ideologists of this class - Tacitus, Suetonius and others. In the middle of the 3rd century. this attitude has not changed, as can be seen from the speech of Maecenas to Augustus written by Dion Cassius, in which the advice is definitely given to fight foreign cults in every possible way. The antagonism between the Senate party and Christians especially increased by the middle of the 3rd century. If under Marcus Aurelius one can only vaguely assume a connection between the growth of opposition in the provinces, the spread of Christianity there and its persecution by the government, then in the middle of the 3rd century. this connection becomes much more tangible. Christianity becomes one of the forms of manifestation of discontent of provincial middle landowners and municipal nobility against the “destructive draining of funds” by Rome. The composition of the Christian community itself is rapidly changing towards representatives of more prosperous strata. The number of the latter is growing, they are beginning to push aside the former democratic members of the Christian church and, perceiving Christian teaching, change it in a direction more acceptable to them.

One of the main moments of the crisis of the 3rd century. - aggravation of relations between Rome and the provinces. This is the fight against usurpers and unrest in the provinces. Hints of a connection between the persecution of Christians and conflicts in the provinces are visible already under M. Aurelius and S. Severus; this connection appears more clearly under Decius.

Decius was a Senate-oriented emperor who succeeded various anti-Senate emperors, often from the provinces. As such, he expressed the interests of the party of which he was a protégé. Decius tried to ensure the loyalty of the provinces and eradicate Christianity, which provided ideological justification for the increasing desire of provincials to evade state duties.

Despite the decisive intention to fight Christians, the persecution was far from having the terrifying form that Catholic historiography usually attributes to it. Thus, from a letter from Cornelius to the Antiochian bishop Fabius, we learn that during the height of the persecution of Decius in Rome there remained 7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 46 presbyters, 42 acoluths, 52 exorcists and readers, who supported 1,500 poor people, buried the dead, and exhorted Christians not to renounce , standing near the temples themselves, etc. The same picture, judging by the letter of Dionysius of Alexandria, took place in Alexandria. A large clergy also remained in Carthage, maintaining lively correspondence with Rome and with Binance Crypto Exchange, sometimes even gathering in whole crowds; presbyters and deacons were allowed into the prison to pray with the prisoners. The number of martyrs was also small. Thus, Dionysius of Alexandria names 17 people, and Lucian gives the same number of martyrs in a letter to Celerian for the Church of Carthage. Moreover, 14 of these 17 people died in prison, one in a quarry, and only two actually died under torture. And yet, despite this, the persecution seemed to be a decisive success at first.

Sources indicate a large number of those who renounced Christianity - “lapsi”. Dionysius of Alexandria and Cyprian describe at length how Christians themselves rushed to make sacrifices to the gods, without waiting to be captured and forcibly taken to the temple. Cyprian repeatedly mourns significant masses of those who have fallen away and even speaks of “the death of a people who were once so numerous.” The number of “lapsi” is also indicated by the fact that subsequently the confessors issued up to 1000 letters of peace per day. But, despite this apparent defeat, victory remained with Christianity. A very vivid illustration is provided by the history of the Carthaginian church during the persecution, as illuminated by Cyprian (letters and treatises).

The persecution strengthened Christianity, contributing to its centralization, which went so far that the question of the primacy of one bishop in all of Christianity could already arise. Essentially, the struggle between Cyprian and the Roman Bishop Stephen came down to the question of who would be the head of the church, albeit in a disguised form.

Another indicator of the strengthening of the church was the fact that the persecution of Valerian that soon broke out, to which Cyprian himself fell a victim, did not entail a mass apostasy, like the persecution of Decius.

Christianity, in which now the “toiling and burdened” receded into the background, became in the Orthodox Church only obedient admirers and an obedient herd of the clergy, lost its original democratic-revolutionary spirit. This spirit had now to seek its expression in various heresies. But the Christian community still remained an organization in opposition to the empire and Rome. The state's hostility towards it took on more and more active forms as the proportion of provincial opposition in Christianity increased. The Church needed a strong, centralized organization capable of repelling an enemy attack, and persecution not only did not hinder the creation of such an organization, but, on the contrary, helped. Therefore, victory remained on the side of Christianity, preparing for peace and an alliance with the empire in the near future.

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Under Emperor Licinius (308–324)

40 Martyrs of Sebaste

Shared rule of the Roman Empire with Emperor Constantine. In 313, the emperors proclaimed the famous Edict of Milan, which granted freedom to practice Christianity. Despite this, in 320, for unknown reasons, he began persecution in the East of the empire under his control. Among others, those who suffered were: the Great Martyr Theodore Stratilates, the Martyr Eustathius of Ancyra, Bishop Basil of Amasia, Phocas Vertogradar, and the 40 Martyrs of Sebastia. The persecution ended in 324, when Emperor Constantine defeated the army of Licinius and deposed him.

Reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire

A key place in the concept of the history of persecution is occupied by the question of the reasons for its occurrence. Christian historians and apologists of the 2nd–4th centuries. reduced them to two sources: 1) the hatred of pagan society towards Christians; 2) the policy of the Roman state regarding Christianity. In Russian science, this idea, common to the church historiographical tradition, has received scientific justification. True, in the first attempts at scientific presentation of the history of persecution, the question of their origin was not posed as a problem. With reference to early Christian authors, the reasons for the persecution were presented uniformly. As church historiography gains scientific status, elucidating the causes of persecution becomes an obligatory analytical part of church historical work. A.P. Lebedev identified three groups of reasons that led to the emergence of persecution: state, religious and social. First of all, Christianity was incompatible “with the prevailing pagan ideas about state power,” since it did not fulfill the main condition on which the tolerance of the Roman state rested—the veneration of the Roman gods and the fulfillment of the requirements of the state cult. Therefore, it was considered by the authorities as a religious and political crime. Under religious reasons for the persecution of A.P. Lebedev understood the contradiction between Christianity and Roman ideas about religion. Its external features (non-national, universal character, lack of external attributes of a cult) did not allow state authorities to judge it as a religion and equate it with other cults. The main source of persecution, according to A.P. Lebedev, was rooted in the attitude of different layers of pagan society towards Christians. The emperor considered them bad loyal subjects, representatives of the intelligentsia and the administration looked at them as enemies of civilization, the people considered Christians the cause of social misfortune, believing that the gods were angry at the spread of this “wickedness.” As a result, “the government only asserted with its authority that which the initiative belonged to the popular crowd.” The solution to the question of the causes of persecution by A.P. Lebedev reflected the level of its understanding in church historiography of the mid-19th century: the political aspect of persecution, which at the end of the 19th century. historians will consider it a determining factor, considered among others (social, religious); religious and state reasons were artificially separated, although, in essence, they stemmed from a common foundation - the state character of the Roman religion; The “social” factor was recognized as having a leading role. V.V. In identifying the causes of persecution, Bolotov sought to combine the church historiographical tradition and the results of the latest foreign research. On the one hand, he recognized the determining influence of the “social factor” (the attitude of the common people, the government and the intelligentsia) on the fate of Christianity in the Roman Empire. On the other hand, he did not attach any “causal” significance to it. The hatred of pagan society was not a sufficient basis for initiating legal proceedings, and yet the persecution of Christians was clothed in the form of a judicial verdict, carried out strictly according to the law. In developing this position, V.V. Bolotov relied on an article by T. Mommsen, which he called “an era in historical literature about the position of Christians in the Roman Empire.” Examining the position of Christianity in the Roman Empire from the perspective of the norms of Roman religious law, Mommsen came to the conclusion that the persecution of Christians was of a strict state-legal nature and, as such, began in the second half of the 3rd century. Based on this thesis, V.V. Bolotov turned to the characteristics of the “Roman religious surface,” representing an alloy of religious, national and state-legal views and principles of life of Roman society. Such features of Roman religiosity as “conservatism”, “formalism” and the “external” way of expressing it (not internal conviction, but cult was its center) inevitably led to a clash with Christianity on religious grounds. Hence the “newness” of Christianity, its exclusivity, non-national and “proselytizing” character, were antipathetic to Roman religious feeling and led to a conflict with government regulations. V.V. Bolotov emphasized that the main obstacle to free existence for Christians in the Roman Empire was the Church itself, as a legally defined concept. From the point of view of Roman law, the Christian church was a collegium or licitum or illicitum. The Roman state recognized certain types of colleges, among which the “funerary colleges” (collegia fimeraticia) enjoyed special patronage. It was easy for Christian communities to assimilate their rights due to some external similarities. Written evidence of this rapprochement begins in the middle of the 2nd century. But the “funeral colleges,” although they served as a convenient institution for the existence of Christian communities, were not a guarantee of their legality. When approximately from the middle of the 3rd century. The true meaning of Christian communities as societies separated from the state is revealed to the government; this establishes formal grounds for the persecution of Christianity, which Bolotov considered to be the main ones in the history of persecution. To persecute Christians as members of an “illegal college,” it was not necessary to issue special laws: “it was enough for the police to know how the supreme power treated them.” V.V. Bolotov identified three types of legal charges against Christians: 1) from suspicion of magic and witchcraft; 2) for refusing to venerate the pagan gods (sacrilegium - a crime against religion), which could only be refuted by making a sacrifice to the gods; 3) a crime against religion turned into a crime against power (crimen laesae majestatis) or into “lese majeste” in the narrow sense (impietas), an insult to the emperor. All these accusations arose from the incompatibility of Christianity with the principles of Roman legislation on religion. Thus, the persecutions were not mass beatings and were carried out on legal grounds, and their strength and character in different periods of history were determined by various socio-political circumstances. Coordination of the traditional approach, which explained the emergence of persecution from the hatred of pagan society and the latest position of foreign historiography on their legal nature, in the concept of V.V. Bolotov was achieved using the thesis about the unevenness of persecution throughout the late 1st - early 4th centuries. At first, the people acted against Christians with the indifference of the intelligentsia and restrained by state power, then - the state with the vague attitude of the intelligentsia. Only under Diocletian does the combined action of the three forces take place, but this was already “the dying blow of dying paganism to Christianity.” In similar dynamics V.V. Bolotov, as a church historian, saw a providential meaning: the forces opposing Christianity seemed to pacify each other through mutual opposition, which gave it the opportunity to grow stronger and withstand the decisive struggle. The problem of relations between the Christian church and the Roman state in the 1st-2nd centuries. in connection with the issue of persecution, it became the central subject of polemics between the antiquarian and the Byzantinist Yu.A. Kulakovsky and the editors of the publication “Proceedings of the Kyiv Theological Academy” in 1891-1893. Based on the provisions of the said article by T. Mommsen, Yu.A. Kulakovsky tried to prove that Christianity existed completely freely in the Roman Empire during the first two centuries. Persecution in the 1st-2nd centuries. as such there were no Christian martyrdoms of this period are the result of spontaneous actions of the people and abuses of the administration. Based on the thesis about the state nature of the Roman religion, Yu.A. Kulakovsky pointed to its “dead character” (“the expression of religion in an external way... in a variety of precisely and clearly defined forms, cults, customs and rituals”). This was the basis for the religious tolerance of Rome, which did not know persecution for its faith. Only forms of worship that were contrary to Roman religious consciousness were subject to ban. In principle, the Roman state was indifferent to the religious views of its subjects and with “majestic disdain” for the Jews. Christianity should have caused the same attitude. Yu.A. Kulakovsky emphasized that only from the middle of the 3rd century. The Roman authorities realized the true meaning of Christianity, recognized it as a political danger and began persecution, which was directed primarily at the church hierarchy. But even these persecutions were not consistent, “thanks to the frequent change of emperors, shortcomings in the administration system, and the emerging symptoms of the internal decay of a world power...”. It is significant that Yu.A. Kulakovsky proved the “tolerance” of the Roman state by reasoning about the peculiarities of the state-religious worldview of Rome, the analysis of which received a polar opposite interpretation in church historiography and served as an explanation for the antagonism of the Christian church and the Roman state. Hence, the main method of criticism for the author of the editorial article “Proceedings of the Kyiv Theological Academy” was the refutation of a number of statements by Yu.A. Kulakovsky about the nature of Roman religion and its consequences for Christianity. Firstly, it was pointed out that the expression of religion in an external way is a characteristic feature of the religions of the peoples of antiquity and does not indicate its “dead” character, much less does it lead to religious indifference. National exclusivity was based on religious exclusivity, and tolerance here was possible only within certain boundaries, “without giving up one’s own.” The “two-dimensionality” of the Roman religion was rightly emphasized, combining both ancient beliefs, widespread in the lower and middle classes, which retained the “old Roman religious sense” and had no ideas about tolerance, and philosophical religious skepticism, which spread “under the influence of ancient rhetoricians and sophists.” , creating the illusion of complete religious tolerance of Rome. The second argument in refuting the thesis about the “dead” and “indifferent” nature of the Roman religion was the clarification of the specifics of Roman religiosity from the general laws of polytheism. Polytheism does not know religious exclusivity, therefore the Roman national gods did not exclude the existence of other gods - every nation has its own national gods. It is precisely the essence of polytheism that is the key to understanding the interreligious relations of Rome. By annexing peoples, Rome included their gods in its national cult. The Senate, in consultation with the College of Pontiffs, established the ceremony of the newly accepted gods. But freedom of religion was limited by the care of the state for the Roman religion. Therefore, a separate group consisted of national cults that were not accepted into the Roman state cult. Their admirers were given freedom, but proselytism was prohibited. Roman citizens were prohibited from participating in such cults. Finally, the third argument of criticism is the classic position of church historiography about the influence of the state character of the Roman religion on the status of Christianity in the Roman Empire. The state character of the Roman religion served as a basis for the rejection of Christianity because it stemmed from two provisions: 1) the main principle of state life was the public veneration of Russian gods, carried out at the expense of the state by its representatives; 2) all civil and criminal law of the Romans developed from sacred law, and therefore had a sacred character. During the era of the Principate, a new religious element was included in the state cult - the deification of emperors, which was of great importance in the history of Rome's struggle with Christianity. It was the religious and civic duty of every citizen to render religious honors to the emperor. Refusal of the ceremony was simultaneously a crime against religion, against the emperor, and against the Roman people. The latter aspect of Roman religious and legal consciousness was emphasized by church historians as its irreconcilable opposition to Christianity. Thus, the thesis of Yu.A. Kulakovsky’s idea of ​​“the appearance of persecution for the name” was consistently refuted with the help of what was already substantiated by the end of the 19th century. provisions of church historiography on the state-religious reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. It is noteworthy that the central theme of the controversy, which arose from T. Mommsen’s article, was further continued in church historical literature. Thesis on the religious and legal reasons for the persecution of Christians and their significant differences in the 1st-2nd and 3rd-4th centuries. received fundamental justification in the lectures of V.V. Bolotov and A.A. Spassky. At the same time, a position opposite to that asserted by Yu.A. was proven. Kulakovsky: persecution with differences in their motives and intensity in the 1st-2nd and 3rd-4th centuries. were a universal and continuous fact, resting on the basis of Roman religious legislation, Christians suffered for their faith, regardless of the form of persecution. The controversy under consideration showed that by the end of the 19th century. In the works of church historians, the concept of the history of persecution took shape. In this regard, it should be noted that a “skeptical” view of it existed even before Yu.A. Kulakovsky. Fifteen years before this controversy, in the work of P. Lashkarev, professor of canon law at the Kiev Theological Academy, “The attitude of the Roman state to religion in general and to Christianity in particular (up to and including Constantine the Great),” it was proved that the persecution of Christians was a random phenomenon, provoked by personal negative qualities emperors, and even from the middle of the 3rd century, with the exception of the persecution of Diocletian, the Roman government did not set itself the goal of “the total extermination of all followers of Christianity.” Weak scientific argumentation and the contradiction of individual statements of P. Lashkarev with the traditional concept of the history of persecution led to the fact that the work was criticized, and the point of view expressed in it was not continued in Russian historiography. Thus, using the example of church historians’ perception of the views of P. Lashkarev and Yu.A. Kulakovsky, we can assert that the church-historical concept of the history of persecution, whose main premises go back to the tradition of ancient church historiography and received scientific substantiation in the second half of the 19th century, was authoritative and practically universally recognized in Russian science. At the beginning of the 20th century. its scientific substantiation was continued by A.A. Spassky, who raised the question of the causes of persecution to a new analytical level. The historian identified three groups of reasons for persecution: social, state-religious and political. Discussing the social causes of persecution, he emphasized that the most tragic clashes, the inevitability of which the Gospel speaks of (Matthew 10:37; Luke 12:51-53), occurred in the family. Misunderstanding and hostility on religious and everyday grounds naturally grew into hatred not only of Christians, but also of Christianity. The sphere of private life was inseparable from public life, and both were illuminated by religious holidays and activities. First of all, Christians abandoned the latter, thereby renouncing social ties. The hatred of pagans towards Christians was understandable and inevitable. But cases of massacres were considered by the Roman administration as an intolerable disorder in a well-ordered society. Christianity was persecuted not because society hated it, but because it was in conflict with the religious legislation of Rome. Thus, the position of Christianity was determined by the legal system of the Roman Empire, since it was this that determined the religious life of citizens. Such a statement overcame the well-known stereotype of church historiography about the leading importance of “social” reasons for the persecution of Christians and at the same time confirmed the position formulated by V.V. Bolotov, about their state-legal nature. Expanding the traditional thesis for church historiography about the state nature of the Roman religion and its complete coincidence with the cult, A.A. Spassky noted that Roman religious tolerance had its limits, and, moreover, rested on legislation on religion, strictly controlled by the state. The Roman state, which was in principle indifferent to the personal beliefs of its subjects, did not demand faith, but participation in ceremonies established by the state. That is why the basic principle of Roman religious policy - the protection of the state significance of the Roman national religion and its obligatory nature for all subjects, regardless of their religious beliefs - placed Christians outside the law of the Roman Empire. Christianity clashed with the legal order of the empire on three points: a) Christians were opponents of the state religion and were subject to punishment for refusing to serve their native gods (sacrilegium); b) Christians were opponents of the cult of the Caesars and were considered as criminals against his power (impietas); c) Christians were members of a religious society dangerous for the state and were involved in punishment as enemies of the state and political criminals. All these accusations flowed from the very essence of Christianity. Without expressing fundamentally new judgments about the causes of persecution, A.A. Spassky specified their content in the context of the religious and legal status of Christianity in the Roman Empire, which made it possible to adjust some provisions. In particular, it was proved that the accusations of “insulting the greatness of the Roman people” or his head - the emperor have been applied to Christians very rarely, although they have already been known from the end of the 1st century. The fact is that the cult of Caesars did not imply a direct ban on Christianity - he punished Christians as people guilty of impietas. Not beliefs were punished, but actions - a refusal to demonstrate honors to the emperor’s statue. While the Christian was not put in these strict physical conditions, he was free. The question of the persecution of the Christian church as an institution separated from the state was also revised. A.A. Spassky emphasized that until the second half of the 3rd century. There are no undoubted facts of applying the law on secret societies to Christians. Only the persecution of Depion, Valerian and Diocletian, proceeding from the idea of ​​Christianity as a political crime, destroyed his public organization. Thus, the criminal law on political crimes acted only in exceptional cases from the second half of the 3rd century. And did not have a significant impact on the position of the church. As a result, the main source of determining the legal status of Christians in the Roman Empire, Spassky called the item “A”, where Christianity and the Roman state came into rejection of the first national gods. Spassky characterized the official Roman view of a religious crime, like his predecessors. At the same time, it was emphasized that such a situation retained a significant share of freedom for Christians: they could preach, arrange meetings, write works. In order to attract a Christian to punishment for a religious crime, it was necessary to establish the fact of his refusal to commit victims. To do this, it was necessary to force him to perform ceremonies, which could only be implemented by an administrative person. Thus, the fate of Christians was given into the hands of the administration and was made dependent on its discretion. It is the significance of the administration in the processes against Christians that explains why persecution until the middle of the 3rd century. They were not universal and widespread, although they never stopped completely. At the same time, the external view of religious crimes is also inherent in Rome and extremely unfavorable consequences for the social situation of Christians. “Sacrilegium” both in theory and in practice was considered as a serious crime, came closer to the crime against state power, punished cruelly, providing a wide selection of executions. From the same view of a religious crime, the characteristics of the trial occur. One of them was the ban on looking for Christians. From the Roman point of view, there was no contradiction in this prohibition. Christianity itself was understood only as the possibility of a crime, and looking for is to bring the possibility of a crime in reality. Another feature of the processes against Christians is the use of torture not so that they confess to some crimes, but in order to achieve their renunciation. From the Roman point of view, this was a manifestation of humane principles: torture was of pedagogical significance and should have warned Christians against committing a crime, often entailing a shameful execution and death. These considerations of the historian are important in that they remove the contradiction characteristic of church historiography of the second half of the XIX century. - They explain the continuous nature of the persecution of Christians with the generally successful spread in the empire. The period of persecution in the proper sense begins only in the second half of the 3rd century, the previous story is a period of the legitimate attitude of Roman power to the Church, persecution of random circumstances, which, although a natural, but not a systematic phenomenon that does not affect the Christian religion and the church as So. The study of A.A. Spassky is a detailed and reasoned justification of the traditional church-historiographic concept. The confrontation of the pagan and Christian worlds was recognized as inevitable from the religious and psychological point of view. The legal persecution of Christians, based on the legislative regulation of the relationship between the Christian Church and the Roman state, was considered an external form of expression of persecution. A similar position was indicated in the work of A.P. Lebedeva, substantiated on a detailed analysis of sources in the lectures of V.V. Bolotova and received logical design in the lectures of A.A. Spassky. As a result, the concept of the history of the ancient Christian Church as a “persecuted church” in Russian church historiography received almost exhaustive lighting. Since then we have not found special studies of this topic. Subsequent authors used already proven and reasonable provisions, referring to the work of historians mentioned above.