The Second Book of Maccabees sanctifies many of the same events that are described in the First Book of Maccabees.
Compositionally, the Second Book of Maccabees is usually divided into 2 parts:
Chapters 1 – 2. Letters inviting the Jews of Egypt to celebrate the day of the cleansing of the temple. This contains an account of the death of Antiochus.
Chapters 3 – 15. A story about the events of the Maccabean era, about the persecution of Antiochus against the Jews. The events of 175-161 are described. BC.
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The Holy Bible: Structure and Contents
The Old Testament and the New Testament, the differences and similarities of which we will consider further, are two sections of the Christian Holy Scripture - the Bible. Both Testaments are God's Revelation for man. They were created by righteous people with the participation of the Holy Spirit. Thus, the Bible is the fruit of the co-creation of God and man. Therefore, the text of Scripture is inspired by God, but has the characteristic features of the style of its earthly authors.
Bible
The canonical (that is, recognized by the Orthodox Church as inspired) composition of the Bible includes 66 books. Most of them (39) refer to the Old Testament. These works were written by the prophets of Ancient Israel between the 13th and 4th centuries BC. The original language of these texts is Hebrew. The remaining 27 books of the Bible make up the New Testament. They were created after the birth of Christ by His disciples (apostles), during the 1st century AD. When writing these works, colloquial ancient Greek was used.
All Holy Scripture reflects the story of the salvation of fallen man from the power of sin and death. This happened thanks to the incarnation (incarnation) of God. At the same time, the Old Testament speaks of salvation through prophecies and types. Thus, he prepares a person (so far only within the chosen Israeli people) for the Incarnation. The New Testament tells about the coming of the Savior Jesus Christ to our world. His Nativity, earthly life, teaching, mission, Resurrection and Ascension - this is described in the second part of the Bible.
Authorship and language of writing.
The Second Book of Maccabees is believed to have been originally written in Greek. The content of many Hebraisms in the text was previously explained by the fact that the text was originally written in Hebrew, but today historians and biblical scholars agree that the presence of Hebraisms only indicates the Jewish nationality of the author.
The time of description dates back to the 70s. BC, although some researchers date the writing of the book to the beginning of our era. The identity of the author is unknown. It is believed that he was an Egyptian Jew; his primary sources were 2 letters to the Egyptian Jews about holidays and the writings of Jason of Cyrene.
The text of the Second Book of Maccabees is preserved in the Alexandrian copy. An ancient Italian translation from the Greek has also survived. There is also a Syriac translation from the Greek, but it is not very well done.
What is a Covenant?
In Christianity, the term “covenant” means an agreement, a union between the Creator and humanity, established for the salvation of the latter. By adhering to the covenant, a person maintains a saving connection with the Almighty. Violation of the union leads to the spiritual destruction of God's main creation. Several such agreements were established in pre-Christian times. The Old Testament is their common unifying name.
The first union with God was established by Adam and Eve in paradise. The Almighty blessed our first parents:
“Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it” (Gen. 1:28).
The only prohibition was access to the fruits of the tree of paradise of the knowledge of good and evil. At the instigation of the devil, the inhabitants of paradise disobeyed the Creator, ate the fruits of the mysterious tree, breaking the covenant.
The fall of Adam and Eve deprived humanity of a grace-filled connection with God. Evil has poisoned our existence, bringing suffering and death into it. In the “Message of the Patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Church on the Orthodox Faith” of 1723, the following words can be found:
“We believe that the first man fell in paradise and that from here the ancestral sin spread successively to all posterity, so that there is not a single one born according to the flesh who is free from that burden and does not feel the consequences of the fall in this life. And we call the burden and consequence of the fall <...> the inclination to sin and those disasters with which Divine justice punished a person for his disobedience, such as: exhausting labor, sorrow, bodily infirmities, birth illnesses, difficult life on earth for some time, wanderings , and finally, bodily death.”
The concepts of “Old Testament” and “New Testament”: difference
Participants in the remaining pre-Christian unions with God were the chosen people of Israel. These covenants were made through the prophets. Among them, for example, the successor of the human race, Noah, who was saved from the Flood, the ancestor of many nations, Abraham, and Moses, who led the Jews out of Egyptian slavery. The Old Testaments could not restore the former connection with the Creator, but gradually prepared the possibility of its restoration.
The Old Testament Divine laws and regulations placed man in a subordinate position before the Almighty. However, this was necessary to curb our lost, cruel and depraved nature. To understand the lofty Gospel teaching, a person first had to learn basic moral standards, renounce paganism, and come to know the One God. This was the meaning of the Old Testaments. In the words of Archpriest Seraphim Slobodsky, only by fulfilling the “law of strict truth” were people able to move on to Christ’s “law of Divine love and grace.”
The coming of Christ and His Atonement for our sins reconciled man with God, establishing a relationship between them on a completely different level - the New Testament. How is the Old Testament different from the New Testament? The latter is no longer concluded temporarily and not with a separate people. And forever and with all humanity, opening the way for each of us to the once lost paradise. To become a participant in the New Testament and gain Eternal Life, you must believe in Christ, accept Holy Baptism and work hard to fulfill the New Testament commandments. Regular participation in the Church Sacraments helps with this. For example, in the Eucharist (Communion) established by the Lord, we can unite with Him and sanctify our nature. Saint Ignatius Brianchaninov teaches:
“He only can inherit eternal bliss who has previously dissolved communion with sin, who has previously entered into holy communion with God” (Complete Collection of Creations, volume 1).
Section II. Pentateuch
As stated in Gen. 37:1, the last and very extensive section of the Book of Genesis (chap. 37-50) contains the toledot of Jacob, although in fact it talks about the lives of Jacob's children and focuses primarily on the story of one of the sons, Joseph. However, this attitude of the sacred author towards the toledot of the patriarchs is typical for the Book of Genesis: in the toledot of Terah (11:27–25:11) the main attention is paid to Abraham, and the toledot of Isaac (25:19–35) contains a description of the life and relationship of Esau and Jacob.
Life 37. Envy of the brothers and the sale of Joseph to Egypt. At the beginning of this chapter it is reported that Joseph was the most beloved son of Jacob. This preference was most likely due to the fact that Joseph looked like his mother (his appearance in 39:6 is described in the same words as his mother's appearance in 29:17), so Jacob gave all the strength of love that he nourished towards Rachel, transferred to her firstborn. In addition, in moral terms, the young man Joseph also differed favorably from his cruel and evil brothers. The love and protection with which Jacob surrounded Joseph irritated the other sons of Israel; when the young man carelessly told them about his prophetic dreams, the brothers openly hated him.
One day, when the brothers were grazing cattle at a distance from home, their father sent Joseph to them. Their hatred for their brother was so strong that as soon as they saw him from afar, they immediately planned to deal with him. However, heeding the advice of Reuben (who wanted to save Joseph), the brothers did not kill Joseph with their own hands. Having taken off his multi-colored29 clothes, a visible symbol of fatherly love, the brothers threw the young man into a ditch30 and thereby doomed the unfortunate man to a slow and painful death. We later learn that Joseph begged his brothers for mercy (42:21), but their merciless hearts remained adamant.
Having committed this atrocity, the brothers calmly sat down to eat bread (Gen. 37:25). Considering that not far from them was the ditch in which Joseph was languishing, their behavior clearly demonstrates callousness and cruelty. Soon seeing a caravan of Ishmaelites, who are also called Midianites,31 the brothers decided to pull Joseph out of the pit and sell him into slavery. Thus, they not only got rid of their hated rival, but also benefited materially from it. At the same time, this clearly demonstrated the action of God’s Providence, for the sale of Joseph into slavery became for him deliverance from death and in the future served to save the entire family.
Life 39. Joseph in Potiphar's house. In Egypt, merchants sold Joseph to the courtier Potiphar, the chief of the bodyguard,32 whose duties also included supervising the prison for the royal prisoners. You can see what a dramatic change took place in the life of this young man: if before he was the beloved son of a rich father and had everything he could want, now he found himself a completely powerless slave in the house of a foreigner. St. John Chrysostom, describing the state of Joseph, draws attention to the fact that in his sorrowful situation the righteous man did not fall into despair, did not grumble against God, but maintained firm faith in Yahweh, and “endured the trials sent to him with meekness and complacency” [8, With. 666]. By the grace of Yahweh, Joseph soon became Potiphar's steward, and God's blessing through Joseph extended to all the property of this Egyptian official (v. 5).
And here, when Joseph achieved relative well-being, the Lord sends him a new test, so that later, if Joseph behaves properly, he will further reward and glorify His servant. Potiphar's wife began to harass and persecute Joseph, inciting him to commit adultery, but he firmly remained chaste and faithful to his master. One day, when they were alone, this woman strongly demanded that Joseph give in to her vile desire, but he, leaving his clothes in her hands, ran and ran out (v. 12). Chrysostom, praising the fortitude of Joseph, says: “It was not so wonderful, it seems to me, that three youths in the cave of Babylon remained unharmed and did not suffer anything from the fire, as it is wonderful and extraordinary that this wondrous young man, being held by his clothes by this dishonest and unbridled woman, did not surrender to her, but fled, leaving even his clothes in her hands" [8, p. 668]. Offended by the refusal, the woman decided to destroy the disobedient servant by slandering him in front of her husband. However, Potiphar, most likely, did not believe his wife and therefore did not kill Joseph, but imprisoned him, that is, subjected him to punishment that did not correspond to the gravity of the accusation against the young man. Commenting on Potiphar’s actions, Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov) notes: “Just as the life of a slave was inexpensively valued in ancient times, the type of Joseph’s punishment shows that his master was hardly convinced of the reality of his crime; but, probably, he sacrificed them to the whims of his wife and the honor of his house” [14, p. 583]. In prison, the Lord again shows His help to Joseph, easing his situation and arranging it so that Joseph became a steward over the prisoners.
Life 40. Explanation of the dreams of the courtiers. When two of Pharaoh's close associates are imprisoned, Joseph interprets their prophetic dreams. It should be noted here that the ancient Egyptians were especially reverent and attentive to dreams, believing that through dreams the gods revealed their will. Moreover, there was even a kind of “science”, whose representatives (magi and sages, see: Gen. 41:8) collected, recorded dreams and interpreted them. Both the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Mesopotamia compiled “dream books” in which patterns of dreams were accompanied by keys to their explanation. The interpretations of dreams presented by Joseph have some parallels with Egyptian and Mesopotamian literature (in particular, he interprets the numbers used in dreams as indications of time) [see: 36, p. 68]. However, the biblical text also contains an important polemical remark: only the Lord can give an explanation of dreams (Gen. 40:8; 41:16) and no human “science” can reveal the meaning of a dream.
Having announced to the chief cupbearer the return of his position and the mercy of Pharaoh, Joseph asks to put in a word about him before the king. However, the butler forgets about his promise, and Joseph’s stay in prison continues for two more years (Gen. 41:1). This manifestation of human ingratitude did not lead Joseph to despair, but he continued to humbly wait in the wings. As Chrysostom points out, in the very forgetfulness of the cupbearer the Providence of God was also manifested: “If the cupbearer, having remembered him before Pharaoh’s dreams, had freed him from prison with his intercession, then his virtue would perhaps have remained unknown to many. And now the prudent and wise Lord, like a skilled artist, knowing how long the gold should remain in the fire and when it needs to be taken out of there, allows the cupbearer to forget about Joseph for two years, so that the time has come for both Pharaoh’s dreams and at the demand of the very need, the righteous man became known throughout the entire kingdom of Pharaoh” [8, p. 675].
Life 41. The Rise of Joseph. When Pharaoh had unusual dreams and the Egyptian wise men admitted their powerlessness in interpreting them, the cupbearer remembered Joseph, and he, called to Pharaoh, with the help of God, explained the meaning of the dreams, thereby predicting the abundance and subsequent famine awaiting Egypt. After Joseph’s speech, Pharaoh admired his wisdom, recognizing that the Spirit of God was upon Joseph (v. 38), and made him his vizier, that is, the second man in the state, giving him his signet ring33 and putting him in charge of all state affairs. At the same time, Pharaoh gave Joseph a new name: Tzafnaf-paneah.
On the one hand, the need for a major dignitary to have an Egyptian name was obvious, because the name Joseph, alien to the national culture, could cause confusion among the people; on the other hand, the new name was a sign of submission to the pharaoh [see: 14, p. 595], and the fact of his naming testified to the onset of a new stage in Joseph’s life. Soon Joseph married Asenath, the daughter of an Egyptian priest, and from this marriage Ephraim and Manasseh were born, who later became the founders of two numerous and influential tribes of northern Israel. Verse 46 says that Joseph was 30 years old at this time; and since his brothers sold him at the age of 17 (37:2), it turns out that the period of Joseph’s humiliation and trials lasted 13 years.
The unusual rise of Joseph at the court of Pharaoh, in addition to the fact that it was a miracle of God's mercy, also has a historical explanation. Many researchers believe that Joseph lived during the reign of the Asian Hyksos dynasty in Egypt. At the end of the 18th century BC. Hordes of Amorites and Hurrians moved to Palestine from northern Mesopotamia. They owned cavalry, then unknown to other nations, which helped them gain a foothold in Canaan. Then their troops invaded Egypt, which at that time was in a state of devastation and civil strife. Therefore, Asian fighting forces easily took possession of the Delta and established their power there. They built the city of Avaris (Heb. Zoan, Greek Tanis), which became their capital. The Bible speaks repeatedly about this city and notes, in particular, that Zoan was built seven years later than the fortress in Hebron (Num. 13:23).
The formidable conquerors (more precisely, their rulers) received the name “heka hasut” (kings of foreign countries). Along with this, the indigenous Egyptians contemptuously called them “heka shasu,” that is, “shepherd kings”; in Greek transcription historian
Manetho gave this name the word Υκσώς, as a result of which we call them “Hyksos.” The Hyksos conquered Egypt around 1700 BC. and ruled for approximately 150 years. However, they failed to completely subjugate the country, since the south of Egypt and some western territories retained their independence, despite the fact that the Hyksos sometimes raided these lands. Although the Hyksos adopted Egyptian culture and culture, they were hated. The words of the Bible that every shepherd of sheep is an abomination to the Egyptians (Gen. 46:34) reflects the hatred of the native Egyptians towards the Asian conquerors, whom, as already said, they called the shepherd kings. Apparently, the rise of Joseph at the court of Pharaoh and the resettlement of the sons of Israel to Egypt date back to this time. Not trusting the native Egyptians, the Hyksos willingly patronized the people from Canaan.
After Joseph received the authority of the ruler of Egypt, he immediately walked throughout the entire land of Egypt (Gen. 41:46), personally becoming acquainted with the situation in agriculture and studying the customs of the population. Then Joseph began to stockpile grain in every city (v. 48); To do this, he demanded that a fifth of the harvest be separated and collected into storage every year for the next seven years (v. 34).
Life 42. First meeting with brothers. When the years of famine came, Jacob and his family began to feel the need for bread. As a result, the children of Israel (except Benjamin) went to Egypt and, when they met their younger brother, they bowed down to the ground without recognizing him (vv. 6 and 8). Thus, the content of the prophetic dreams of Joseph was fulfilled, who did not show that he recognized the brothers, but accused them of espionage. The Egyptians feared for the safety of their northeastern border, and therefore all foreigners coming from Asia aroused natural mistrust, especially since in ancient times many traders were actually engaged in spying. The severity of the charge for such a crime was aggravated by the difficulty of proving one's innocence. It is clear that Joseph was well aware that his brothers were not involved in espionage, but with his demands and threats he pursued a dual goal. Firstly, as Blessed Theodoret points out, Joseph wanted to find out information about his half-brother Benjamin and make sure that his brothers did not treat him the same way as they did with Joseph [see: 10, p. 69]. Secondly, Joseph intended to test the brothers and find out whether they themselves had changed for the better. To do this, he demanded that Benjamin be brought to Egypt, leaving Simeon, one of the brothers, as a hostage. The essence of the test that Joseph offers the brothers is this: if they remained the same scoundrels as before, they could sacrifice Simeon for their own benefit. However, having heard their conversation among themselves, in which the brothers expressed repentance for the previously committed crime against Joseph (vv. 21-22), and also seeing their sincere sadness for Simeon, the righteous man joyfully discovered that positive changes had occurred in the souls of the brothers. It was this discovery that brought tears of joy to Joseph's eyes (v. 24).
Life 43–45. The brothers' second arrival in Egypt, test and explanation. When the brothers came to Egypt again with Benjamin, Joseph joyfully received them and invited them to a gala dinner (though Joseph and the brothers dined separately, since there was a custom that forbade the Egyptians from eating food with foreigners, who were treated with arrogance - see. : Gen. 43:32). Such courtesy and kindness of the Egyptian dignitary should have embarrassed the brothers even more. Then Joseph arranges the main test for them: on his instructions, they put a precious cup in Benjamin’s bag (which was also used for fortune telling35 - see: Gen. 44:5) and then, having found this item on him, they accused him of theft and treachery. The essence of Joseph's actions is as follows: if the brothers remain hard-hearted people, or if they hate Benjamin out of envy (like Joseph himself) or for any other reason, then they will abandon him and hand him over to the Egyptian ruler. Thus, as Blessed Theodoret says, Joseph “wanted to test the location of the brothers and reliably find out whether they would stand for the slandered Benjamin. <...> When he saw that [they] were not only protecting him, but also standing firmly for him, he put aside his boss’s face and showed them his brotherly face” [10, p. 71].
The next scene of Joseph's confession (Gen. 45:1-15) is one of the most moving and dramatic in the Old Testament; in terms of its impact on the reader, it can be compared, in our subjective opinion of the author, with the story of the resurrection by the prophet Elisha of the son of a woman from Sonam (2 Kings 4:18–37). Immediately after Joseph revealed himself to his brothers, while they were in confusion, he calmed them down and allayed possible fears of revenge on his part. Words of Joseph (do not be sad and do not regret that you sold me here, because God sent me before you to preserve your life... So, it was not you who sent me here, but God, who made me a father to Pharaoh and lord over everything his house and ruler in all the land of Egypt - Genesis 45:5, 8) express the main motive of the biblical narrative: recognition of the constant action of God's Providence in the world.
When the sons told Jacob that Joseph was alive and that he was the ruler of Egypt, the father at first could not believe it; Having learned the details of their journey, the righteous man seemed to have found new life (then the spirit of Jacob, their father, came to life - Gen. 45:27). One can imagine his joy: for more than 20 years he was tormented and grieved over the death of his beloved son, and only now he received true consolation! Blessed Theodoret, referring to the grief of Jacob, even poses the question: why did the Lord not first reveal to His faithful servant the true fate of Joseph? Responding to this bewilderment, the said exegete says that it would have been impossible in any other way to fulfill the providential intention of the Lord to settle the Israelites in Egypt. “According to the prophecy that was given to Abraham, Jacob and his children and descendants were to move to Egypt. <…> And if the patriarch had found out about his son’s slavery, he would, without a doubt, ransom him; but if he had been ransomed he would not have been thrown into prison. And if this had not happened, I would not have interpreted the dreams of the king’s servants; without having interpreted it, he would not have become known to Pharaoh, and without becoming known, he would not have explained what was predicted to the king in his dreams. And if he had not done this, then the reins of Egypt would not have been entrusted to him. And if he had not taken over Egypt as his ruler, he would not have brought the patriarch and his family into Egypt.” “That is why God left Jacob lamenting, in order to fulfill his economy and subsequently make his life more pleasant” [10, p. 69].
Life 46–47. Israel's migration to Egypt. Having heeded Joseph’s request, and then after the Epiphany (46:2–4) having become convinced that this was what the Lord wanted, Jacob, along with his family and property, went to Egypt and settled there in the land of Goshen. The exact location of this territory is difficult to establish, especially since the name Goshen is Semitic, not Egyptian. However, with a high degree of confidence, exegetes say that this area was located in the eastern part of the Nile Delta. In support of this conclusion, they refer, firstly, to the evidence of Egyptian documents from the period of Hyksos rule that Semites lived here; secondly, on the synonymous use in the Bible of the expressions land of Goshen and land of Ramses36 (cf. Gen. 47:6 and 11) [see: 36, p. 72].
In the Hebrew text Gen. 46:8–27 lists the names of Jacob's sons and grandsons and states that "all the souls of the house of Jacob that went over to Egypt were seventy." This number is repeated several times in the Old Testament (Ex. 1:5; Deut. 10:22) and subsequently in the Jewish tradition becomes (along with the number 12) a symbol of the completeness of Israel; also in Jewish literature it correlates with the number of nations on earth, listed in Gen. 10. However, it should be borne in mind that in the Septuagint in Gen. 46:20 the names of the five sons and grandsons of Ephraim and Manasseh are added, in connection with which in the Greek text of Gen. 46:27 and Ex. 1:5 is the number 75. That is why the holy protomartyr Stephen, relying on the Septuagint, speaks of 75 members of the family of Jacob who settled in Egypt (Acts 7:14).
Life 48. Jacob's blessing of Ephraim and Manasseh. Having learned that Jacob's health had deteriorated, Joseph asked his father to bless Ephraim and Manasseh and placed his sons before Jacob so that Manasseh was at the right hand of the patriarch, and Ephraim at the left. According to Joseph, Manasseh, as the firstborn, should have received a preferential blessing. First of all, Jacob symbolically adopts Joseph's children, declaring them his sons; subsequently, the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh will form two tribes, which will participate on equal terms with the other Israeli tribes in the division of the Promised Land. Then the patriarch performs the most important prophetic action: he places his right hand on the head of Ephraim, the youngest son, while his left hand on the head of Manasseh, who was the firstborn (as the Slavic translation of Genesis 48:14 says, Jacob “changed his hand”), Joseph thought that his father, due to old age and weakness of vision, had made a mistake, but Jacob proclaims the opposite: his younger brother will be greater than him (v. 19). Indeed, subsequently it was the tribe of Ephraim that took the leading position in ten-tribe Israel, so that even the Northern Kingdom formed after the division of the monarchy, the prophets of the 8th century BC. often called Ephraim (Isa. 7:5; Hos. 5:3; 6:4). This reflects another important motif of sacred history: the Lord bestows his blessing on each person solely in accordance with his spiritual disposition, without paying attention to earthly differences, in particular the order of birth. As a result, quite often younger brothers are given preference over older ones (Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Reuben and Judah, the eldest sons of Jesse and David).
In addition, in the actions of Jacob, the Holy Church sees a transformative indication of the Cross of Christ, for the hands of the patriarch at the moment of blessing were folded crosswise (since he laid his right hand on Ephraim standing on the left, and his left hand on Manasseh standing on the right). This idea is reflected in many hymns, in particular in the troparion of the 6th hymn of the canon for the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord: “Having bowed with old age, and burdened with illness, having recovered, Jacob changed his hand, revealing the action of the life-giving Cross...”.
The meaning of the story of Joseph. As you can see, the biblical account of the life of Joseph is fundamentally different from the stories of other patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob). The Lord does not enter into a covenant with Joseph and does not appear to him in a special way (as, for example, to Jacob in the form of a heavenly ladder); Moreover, Joseph (unlike his grandfather and father) does not become the primary heir to the great promises given to Abraham. Despite this, the personality of Joseph occupies a prominent place among the righteous of the Old Testament, and his story has important religious, moral and educational significance. An obvious confirmation of this is that many hymns on Holy Monday, one of the days of the most important week in the annual cycle of worship, are dedicated to the memory of Righteous Joseph. The religious and moral significance of the story about Joseph has several aspects. First, the story of Joseph explains to us how and why the migration of the Jews to Egypt occurred. Secondly, in the life of Joseph, in the most obvious way, “the unceasing action of Providence on the fate of man is revealed, always wise and accurate among the most difficult confusions, beneficent and saving among the gravest misfortunes” [14, p. 562]. It is known that one of the most important aspects of God’s Providence is to limit the evil intentions and actions of people and turn them to good consequences. And it is precisely this idea that is clearly expressed in the words of Joseph addressed to his brothers: you have intended evil against me; but God turned it into good in order to... preserve the lives of a great number of people (Gen. 50:20). In addition, in Gen. 45 twice (vv. 5 and 7) it is said that it was for the sake of saving the life of Jacob and his family (that is, the core of the chosen people) that the Lord sent Joseph to Egypt and allowed him to endure tribulation. Thirdly, in the story of Joseph there is the idea of reward for loyalty to God and perseverance in enduring temptations (parallels can be drawn here with the life of the prophet Daniel). Joseph, being among foreigners, continued to honor only the One God, humbly endured all the hardships of slavery and rejected the advances of Potiphar's wife, maintaining honor and chastity. As a result, the Lord glorified His servant, granting him freedom, wealth and honor in earthly life, as well as an “incorruptible crown” in the next century, as stated in the kontakion of Great Monday: “... the Egyptians, having not worked with sweets then, were glorified by the Lord of humanity heart, and He who sends an imperishable crown.”
Finally, the Holy Church views the story of Joseph as a prototype of the suffering and glorification of the Lord Jesus Christ. This idea is briefly expressed in the troparion of the 1st hymn of the canon at Little Compline on Vai Sunday in the evening: “Having signed the image of the Lady, Joseph is thrown into a ditch, sold by his relatives, everything endures of blessed memory, in the image of truly Christ,” and is discussed in more detail in synaxarion of Holy Monday and patristic works.
Here are the parallels noted between the story of Joseph and the last days of the life of Jesus Christ:
Just as Joseph was the beloved son of Jacob (Gen. 37:3), so Christ is the beloved Son of God the Father.
“Joseph comes to his brothers, and finds his enemies in them: Jesus came to his own, and his own did not receive Him (John 1:11)” [14, p. 566].
Just as envy became the reason for the brothers’ hatred of Joseph (Acts 7:9), so the Jews betrayed Christ into the hands of the pagans out of envy (Matthew 27:18).
The pit into which the brothers threw Joseph to his death prefigures the tomb in which they laid the body of Jesus Christ: “... in the ditch Joseph sometimes lived, Lord Lord, but in the image of Your burial and resurrection” (troparion of the 5th canon of the Great Canon of St. Andrew of Crete ).
Just as the brothers (the closest people) sold Joseph to foreigners, and Judas took the initiative, so one of the disciples, Judas Iscariot, betrayed Christ into the hands of His enemies: “The righteous soul was bound by his relatives, selling himself into sweet work, in the image of the Lord” (troparion 5th song of the Great Canon of St. Andrew of Crete).
The rise of Joseph and his royal position in Egypt as second in command after Pharaoh prefigured the triumph of Jesus Christ, who after the resurrection sat down at the right hand of God the Father, and to whom the Lord put all things in subjection under His feet (Eph. 1:20–23).
Just as Joseph supervised the distribution of bread and fed not only Egypt, but also all the surrounding nations, so the Lord constantly feeds all the faithful with heavenly Bread - His life-giving Body in the Sacrament of the Eucharist.
Books of the Old and New Testaments
The books that make up the Old Testament and the New Testament are divided according to their content into legal, teaching, historical and prophetic. The law-positive texts of the Old Testament include its first five books (the Pentateuch of Moses): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. These works describe the creation of the Universe and man, the fall of Adam and Eve, the lives of their descendants, as well as the laws (commandments) that God gave to the Jewish people through the prophets.
The 4 Gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke, John) are considered the New Testament books of law. They contain stories about the earthly ministry of the Lord, as well as His teachings.
Historical are 12 Old Testament books about the chronicles of the Jewish people before the coming of the Messiah (the books of Joshua, Tobit, Esther, etc.), as well as the New Testament Acts of the Holy Apostles about the missionary work of Christ’s disciples after His Ascension. Using the example of the fate of one people, Old Testament texts show us the salvific nature of God's Providence, the consequences of deviation from the Covenant and the meaning of repentance. These historical books teach that only those who make efforts to do so can be saved. Thanks to the New Testament chronicle of the apostolic acts, we can learn the history of the origin and development of the Christian Church.
Teaching and prophetic books of the Bible
The teaching books include 5 Old Testament books about wisdom and righteousness (Psalms, Proverbs of Solomon, etc.), as well as 21 New Testament letters of the apostles (Paul, James, etc.). These messages are letters of instruction for Christians in general or for their specific communities.
The remaining biblical books are prophetic. First of all, these are 17 Old Testament works named after prophetic authors (Isaiah, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, etc.) with predictions about the Jewish people and the coming of the Savior. Prophetic texts guide the chosen people on the path of salvation and remind them of the importance of following Divine instructions. According to Archpriest Gennady Fast, messianic prophecies are “the essence and core of the entire Old Testament.”
The only New Testament prophetic book is the Revelation of the Lord about the end of times, recorded by the Apostle John the Theologian. This text touches on such events as the Second Coming of Christ, the Last Judgment, the final victory of God over evil and the establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven.
So, after analyzing both Testaments, we can come to the conclusion about their fundamental substantive difference. The first part of Scripture emphasizes laws, rituals, history, and prophecies. The second section of the Bible focuses on the themes of moral perfection, unity with God and the prospect of Eternal Life. Archpriest Oleg Stenyaev notes:
“The Old Testament talks about what man had to do for God. The New Testament talks about what God did for man. Of course, these are incommensurable things. Therefore, St. John Chrysostom says that the New Testament is higher than the Old, just as heaven is higher than the earth.”
Second Book of Ezra
The entire content of the second book of Ezra is nothing more than a literal, almost, borrowing from the book of Chronicles, Ezra (the first) and Nehemiah, and especially from the book of Ezra.
a) Thus, the first chapter of the book under study is a repetition of chapters 35 and 31 from the 2nd book of Chronicles, with very minor differences980.
b) Much more borrowing was made, as noted above, from the first book of Ezra981; and to these borrowings are added those additions that cast a shadow of unreliability and doubt on the 2nd book of Ezra, and deprive it of its canonical dignity. These places are as follows:
1
.
Thus, the most characteristic story contained in this book - about the three bodyguards of King Darius, deciding the question: “ what is strongest
”982 - seems quite mythical in itself, and in its details contains several obvious oddities.
For example, the bodyguards, having placed their decisions on the above-mentioned issue under the king’s head, already themselves determine and appoint forward, without coping with the will of the king, that “ whose word turns out to be more reasonable than another, King Darius will give him great gifts and a great reward
”983, - as as if this was mandatory for King Darius! Moreover, the reward that the bodyguards came up with for themselves is amazing in its excessiveness; and the king not only does not hesitate to give it, but even offers a large, if possible, reward to one of the three voluntary competitors who turns out to be the winner, as the book tells984.
And the reward is: “...and he will
(one of the litigants in wisdom)
to dress in scarlet, and to drink from golden vessels, and to sleep on gold, and to ride in a chariot with horses with golden bridles, to wear a bandage of
fine linen
and a necklace around the neck.
And he will sit second after Darius for his wisdom, and will be called a relative of Darius...
"985. What more could any famous Persian commander, who acquired many provinces for the state and won glorious victories, wish for himself?!
2
. The confusion and inaccuracy of the news about the personality of Zerubbabel is noted. For example, it is said that the leader of the Jews who returned from captivity for the first time under King Cyrus was not Zerubbabel, but a certain Samanasser986, which contradicts the clear indication of the 1st book of Ezra987. It is also reported that Zerubbabel was one of the bodyguards under King Darius Hystaspes, while at that time, according to the 1st book of Ezra, Zerubbabel was in Jerusalem988. If we assume (although not without stretching it) that Darius’s bodyguard was not Zerubbabel himself, but his son, Joachim,989 who, perhaps, also bore the name of Zerubbabel; then a new difficulty will arise from the fact that about this young man, Joachim Zerubbabel, in the 2nd book of Ezra, the story is told in exactly the same way as about Zerubbabel the father in the 1st book of Ezra.
3
.
Even more inaccuracies and confusion are noted in the news about King Darius Hystaspes. For example, it is said about him that on the first day of his accession to the throne, he made a promise to God to build Jerusalem990. If this were so, then why did Darius, no longer than in the second year of his reign, need to look for the ancient decree of Cyrus in order to, on the basis of it, allow the Jews to build the temple of Jerusalem991? But where is his own royal promise, and has he really forgotten it in such a short time? It is also told about Darius that, releasing Zerubbabel (it was he, according to the news of the 2nd book of Ezra, that happy sage - bodyguard who received an extraordinary royal reward for solving the question “ what is strongest
”) to Jerusalem,
“... King Darius, ... wrote him letters to all the rulers and heads of the regions, and military leaders, and satraps, so that they would let him and with him through - everyone going to build Jerusalem. Also, he wrote letters to all the local leaders of Kelesyria and Phenicia and those in Lebanon, asking them to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to Jerusalem and help him build the city
.
After this news, it may seem strange why, when the construction of the city and temple actually began in Jerusalem, the same rulers of Syria and Phenicia asked Zerubbabel: “ With whose permission are you building this house and this roof, and doing everything else?”
"993. It’s strange how Zerubbabel did not present them with Darius’s decree, which was very recent, but preferred to wait until, according to a letter from the Syrian rulers in Ecbatana, the ancient decree of Kirov994 was found? It is even more strange that Darius, as if not recognizing any force behind his recent decree, ordered to search in the book depositories for the decree of Cyrus, which allowed the Jews to build Jerusalem, and only after finding this decree, he issues a new decree in the same sense. Does it not appear from all this that the first decree of Darius is an arbitrary and incorrect addition to the author of the 2nd book of Ezra? Thirdly, it is said about Darius that he freed the Jews from all public taxes996, while, according to the reliable information of the book of Nehemiah, it was during his reign that a murmur arose among the insufficient classes of Jews about the burden of government taxes and state taxes997. It should also be noted that, when talking about Darius, how he preoccupied himself with finding the Kirov decree - according to the representation of the Syrian and Phoenician rulers, the writer of the 2nd book of Ezra does not say anything about the Trans-Euphrates, i.e., the Trans-Euphrates regional governors, who, in fact, did presentation or report to Darius, according to the news of the 1st book of Ezra998.
4
. About King Cyrus it is also conveyed in a confusing and contradictory way, as if he did not return and did not give to the Jewish captives going home their sacred vessels for the temple of Jerusalem, and as if only Darius Hystaspes did this for the first time, at the request of his wise Jewish bodyguard999, contrary to the reliable news of the 1st book of Ezra1000, and contrary even to his own testimony of the 2nd book of Ezra1001.
5
. The burning of the Temple of Jerusalem is attributed to the Edomites1002, and not the Chaldeans, contrary to the words of the book of Kings and Chronicles1003.
6
. There are chronological inaccuracies: for example, the construction and consecration of the altar in Jerusalem by the Jews who returned from captivity dates back to the time of Darius Hystaspes, namely, to the second year of this king1004, while the altar was built under Cyrus by the very immigrants who returned from captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel, and even before the circumstance when, due to the slander of the Samaritans, Artaxerxes (False Smerdis) stopped the construction of the temple1005.
c) The end of the second book of Ezra1006 is borrowed from the book of Nehemiah1007. But even here there is an inaccuracy or inaccuracy in the story. It is narrated how Ezra taught the people the book of the law of Moses, but it is narrated as if this circumstance happened before Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem1008. Moreover, Ezra is called a high priest1009, whereas he was a priest1010.
The Meaning of the Old and New Testaments
The Old and New Testaments - the difference between them is obvious. However, the Orthodox Church views them as a single saving Revelation of a loving Creator. Archpriest Vsevolod Chaplin notes:
“In the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, the True God revealed himself in full.”
As St. Ephraim the Syrian taught, both Testaments are “a single body of Truth.” The Lord Himself emphasized that He does not abolish the Law, but complements and develops it (Matthew 5:17). The Old Testament is the foundation for the New. It is a “schoolmaster to Christ” (Gal. 3:24) who enabled fallen man to “grow” to the heights of the Gospel.
Without knowledge of the first part of the Holy Scriptures, a full understanding of the New Testament is impossible. How did humanity lose paradise and why did it wait so long for the Savior? The Old Testament answers these questions. Let us quote the words of Priest Evgeny Murzin:
“If we discard the Old Testament, then we will understand practically nothing in the Gospel. The Old Testament is full of prophecies and types, the fulfillment of which we see in the earthly life, death and resurrection of the Savior.”
If the Old Testament, in the words of St. Ignatius (Brianchaninov), is a “transformation of salvation,” then the New Testament “more abundantly teaches” this salvation (Complete Collection of Creations, volume 4). The second part of the Bible is a precious source of Christ's teaching. This is an instruction on how to restore the connection with the Creator broken by the Fall. How to not only cleanse your soul from sin, but also fill it with Divine grace. Priest Andrei Chizhenko notes:
“The Holy Gospel is the main book of humanity, which contains life for people. It contains Divine truths that lead us to salvation. And it itself is the source of life - a word truly filled with the power and wisdom of the Lord. This is the voice of Christ himself.”
The significance of both Testaments in Orthodoxy is confirmed by the presence of their texts in Christian services. For example, none of them is complete without quoting the Old Testament psalms of David, reflecting the multifaceted relationship between man and God. Six psalms are read at once at Matins (Six Psalms). The Gospel chapters are solemnly recited at Matins, All-Night Vigil, Divine Liturgy, prayer services, and in some Sacraments and services. At the liturgy, before the Gospel, the Apostolic Epistles and Acts are also read.
Question about the authority of Second Maccabees
If we talk about the historical authority of the book, we must admit that not everything in the book is historical. Firstly , the primary sources themselves, which we discussed above, are not fully historical documents. In letters about holidays, researchers find many deviations from the truth, and the writings of Jason of Cyrene are more rhetorical than historical. Secondly , the author treated the primary sources very freely and biasedly. Thirdly , the descriptions of many historical events contradict the descriptions of the same events in other, more authoritative books. Fourth, Second Maccabees contradicts itself. So in the first chapter it is said that Antiochus was killed by the priests, and in the ninth chapter his death from worms and loss of entrails is described.
Despite many inconsistencies, the Second Book of Maccabees also contains a lot of historically reliable information (the martyrdom of Eleazar, the seven brothers and their mother Solomonia, etc.).
The Second Book of Maccabees enjoys authority as a moral and doctrinal text and is considered, according to Apostolic Canon 85, “honored and holy.” The book authoritatively reveals the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, the creation of the world “out of nothing,” and martyrdom for faith in the true God. The meaning of the prayers of the dead for the living and the prayers of the living for the dead is described. The book gives many examples of unshakable faith and God's punishment for disobedience.
Prayers before and after reading the Gospel
Brief prayer before reading the Gospel
Lord Jesus Christ! Open the eyes of my heart, so that I may hear Your word and understand it and do Your will.
The prayer is different
Shine in our hearts, O Lord, the love of mankind, of Your knowledge of God, the imperishable light, and open our mental eyes to the understanding of Your gospel sermons, invest in us and Your blessed ones for lead us to fear, so that all carnal lusts may be trampled, let us pass through spiritual life, all of which is to please You and wisely and active. For You are the enlightenment of our souls and bodies, O Christ God, and we ascribe glory to You, with Your Beginning Father and Your All-Holy, and Good, and Life-giving Spirit, now and ever forever and ever, amen.
Prayer after reading the Gospel
Glory to You, Lord the King, Son of the living God, who made me unworthy to hear Your divine words and the voice of Your Holy Gospel; Therefore, with Your sovereign voice, strengthen me in the repentance of this present life so that the night may pass away, delivering me from all slander and malice of visible and invisible enemies: You are He alone is strong and reigns forever. Amen.
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